NOTES

Introduction

1. “Alphabet Cash on Hand,” Macrotrends, https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/GOOGL/alphabet/cash-on-hand.

2. “$25 Billion to Vaccinate the World,” Public Citizen, May 24, 2021, https://www.citizen.org/article/25-billion-to-vaccinate-the-world/.

3. American Innovation and Choice Online Act, S. 2992, 117th Congress, 2nd sess., introduced in the Senate October 18, 2021, https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/2992/text/.

4. Open App Markets Act, S. 2710, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., introduced in the Senate August 11, 2011, https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/2710/actions.

5. Ryan Tracy, “Tim Wu, Big Tech Critic, Named to National Economic Council,” Wall Street Journal, March 5, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/tim-wu-big-tech-critic-named-to-national-economic-council-11614954821.

6. See Matthew Hindman, The Myth of Digital Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009); Lucas Introna and Helen Nissenbaum, “Shaping the Web: Why the Politics of Search Engines Matter,” Information Society 16, no. 3 (2000): 169–185; Eszter Hargittai, “Do You ‘Google’? Understanding Search Engine Use Beyond the Hype,” First Monday 9, no. 3 (2003), https://firstmonday.org/article/view/1127/1047; Alexander Halavais, Search Engine Society (Cambridge, MA: Polity, 2009); Siva Vaidhyanathan, The Googlization of Everything (and Why We Should Worry) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).

7. Elizabeth Van Couvering, “Search Engine Bias: The Structuration of Traffic on the World-Wide Web” (PhD diss., London School of Economics, 2010); Paško Bilić, “A Critique of the Political Economy of Algorithms: A Brief History of Google's Technological Rationality,” TripleC: Cognition, Communication, Co-operation 16, no. 1 (2018), 315–331; Christian Fuchs, “Google Capitalism,” TripleC: Cognition, Communication, Co-operation 10, no. 1 (2012): 42–48; Micky Lee, Alphabet: The Becoming of Google (London: Routledge, 2019); Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information (Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press, 2015).

8. Joseph Johnson, “Global Digital Population as of January 2021,” Statista, April 7, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/.

9. Jessica Clement, “Most Popular Websites Worldwide from 1993 to 2020, by Highest Number of Monthly Visits,” Statista, February 5, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1175389/most-popular-websites-monthly-visits/.

10. “Digital Advertising Spending Worldwide from 2019 to 2024,” Statista, May 28, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/237974/online-advertising-spending-worldwide/.

11. Joseph Johnson, “Annual Revenue of Alphabet from 2017 to 2020, by Segment,” Statista, February 2, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/633651/alphabet-annual-global-revenue-by-segment/.

12. Shanhong Liu, “Microsoft Corporation Search Ad Revenue 2016–2021,” Statista, August 3, 2021, https://www-statista-com.stanford.idm.oclc.org/statistics/725388/microsoft-corporation-ad-revenue/.

13. Matt Egan, “2008: Worse Than the Great Depression?,” CNN Business, August 14, 2014, https://money.cnn.com/2014/08/27/news/economy/ben-bernanke-great-depression/index.html.

14. Robert Lenzner, “The 2008 Financial Collapse Was Worse Than 1929, Geithner Insists,” Forbes, June 22, 2014, https://www.forbes.com/sites/robertlenzner/2014/06/22/the-2008-financial-collapse-was-worse-than-1929/?sh=735218cf5f35.

15. Staci D. Kramer, “Obama: ‘We'll Renew Our Information Superhighway,’” CBS News, December 8, 2008, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/obama-well-renew-our-information-superhighway.

16. Lance Whitney, “Obama Dines with Jobs, Zuckerberg, Other Tech Honchos,” CNET, February 18, 2011, http://www.cnet.com/news/obama-dines-with-jobs-zuckerberg-other-tech-honchos/.

17. Capital accumulation is defined by having at least a portion of surplus-value reinvested and converted to new capital to produce more surplus-value. See Chapter 6 David Harvey, The Limits of Capital (London; New York: Verso, 2006).

18. Office of the President of the United States, “Issues: Technology,” accessed January 1, 2020, https://web.archive.org/web/20090805221222/http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/technology/.

19. White House Office of the Press Secretary, “White House to Launch Digital Promise Initiative,” September 16, 2011, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/09/16/white-house-launch-digital-promise-initiative.

20. Matt Joseph, “How President Obama Shaped the Future of Digital Health,” Tech-Crunch, July 27, 2016, https://techcrunch.com/2016/07/27/how-president-obama-shaped-the-future-of-digital-health/.

21. Barack Obama, “Writing the Rules for 21st Century Trade,” The White House, February 18, 2015, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2015/02/18/president-obama-writing-rules-21st-century-trade.

22. Executive Office of the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, “Report to the President: Ensuring Long-Term U.S. Leadership in Semiconductors,” January 2017, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/PCAST/pcast_ensuring_long-term_us_leadership_in_semiconductors.pdf.

23. National Intelligence Council, “Global Trends 2030: Alternative Worlds,” December 2021, https://info.publicintelligence.net/GlobalTrends2030.pdf.

24. Vijay Prashad, “Trade and Tensions Between the U.S. and China,” Monthly Review Online, August 3, 2020, https://mronline.org/2020/08/03/trade-and-tensions-between-the-u-s-and-china/.

25. Samm Sacks, Statement Before the House Energy and Commerce Committee Subcommittee on Communications and Technology, “Telecommunications, Global Competitiveness, and National Security,” 115th Cong., 2nd sess., May 16, 2018, 19 https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo113871.

26. Nick Bastone, “A Wall Street Firm Figured Out How Much Money Google Will Sacrifice by Cutting off Huawei,” Business Insider, May 24, 2019, https://www.businessinsider.com/wall-street-estimates-google-lost-revenue-huawei-ban-2019–5.

27. Asa Fitch and Stu Woo, “The U.S. vs. China: Who Is Winning the Key Technology Battles?” Wall Street Journal, April 12, 2020, https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-u-s-vs-china-who-is-winning-the-key-technology-battles-11586548597; Audrey Cher, “‘Superpower Marathon’: U.S. May Lead China in Tech Right Now—But Beijing Has the Strength to Catch Up,” CNBC, May 17, 2020, https://www.cnbc.com/2020/05/18/us-china-tech-race-beijing-has-strength-to-catch-up-with-us-lead.html.

28. Outline of the People's Republic of China's 14th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and Long-Range Objectives for 2035, Xinhua News Agency, March 12, 2021, https://cset.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/t0284_14th_Five_Year_Plan_EN.pdf.

29. United States Innovation and Competition Act of 2021, S. 1260, 117th Cong., 1st sess., passed in the Senate June 8, 2021, https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/1260.

30. The America Competes Act of 2022, U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, https://science.house.gov/americacompetes.

31. Bjarke Smith-Meyer, Lili Bayer, and Jakob Hanke Vela, “EU Officials Float €100B Boost for European Companies.” Politico, August 22, 2019, https://www.politico.eu/article/exclusive-european-commission-leaked-plans/.

32. Robert McChesney, “The Political Economy of Global Communication,” in Capitalism and the Information Age, ed. Ellen Wood, John Bellamy Foster, and Robert McChesney (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1998), 1–26.

33. Vincent Mosco and Andrew Herman, “Critical Theory and Electronic Media,” Theory and Society 10 (1981): 869–896.

34. Janet Wasko, “The Study of the Political Economy of the Media in the Twenty-First Century,” International Journal of Media and Cultural Politics 10, no. 3 (2014): 259–271.

35. Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power (New York: Public Affairs, 2019); Boutang Moulier, Cognitive Capitalism (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2021); Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009); Nick Srnicek, Platform Capitalism (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2017).

36. Dan Schiller, Digital Depression: Information Technology and Economic Crisis (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014), 8–9.

37. Ellen Wood, “Capitalism's Gravediggers,” Verso, January 14, 2016, https://www.versobooks.com/blogs/2313-ellen-meiksins-wood-capitalism-s-gravediggers/.

38. Ellen Wood, “Modernity, Postmodernity or Capitalism?,” Review of International Political Economy 4, no. 3 (1997): 550.

39. The theory of crisis is central to understanding capitalism and reveals the internal contradictions within capitalism. Scholars agree that capitalism has a tendency toward periodic crisis; however, there is disagreement about the reasons for these crises. See Giovanni Arrigh, “Toward a Theory of Capitalist Crisis,” New Left Review 1/111 (September–October 1978): 3–24; Robert Brenner, The Economics of Global Turbulence: The Advanced Capitalist Economies from Long Boom to Long Downturn, 1945–2005 (London: Verso, 2006); David Harvey, “Crisis Theory and the Falling Rate of Profit,” in The Great Financial Meltdown of 2008: Systemic, Conjunctural or Policy Created?, ed. Turan Subasat (Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 2016).

40. Robert Brenner, “The World Economy at the Turn of the Millennium Toward Boom or Crisis?,” Review of International Political Economy 8, no. 1 (Spring 2001): 7–16.

41. David Harvey, The New Imperialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 87.

42. Dan Schiller, “Power Under Pressure: Digital Capitalism in Crisis,” International Journal of Communication 5 (2011): 924–941.

43. Robert McChesney, Digital Disconnect: How Capitalism Is Turning the Internet Against Democracy (New York: New Press, 2013).

44. Paul Baran and Paul Sweezy, Monopoly Capital: An Essay on the American Economic and Social Order (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1966).

45. Howard Botwinick, Persistent Inequalities: Wage Disparity Under Capitalist Competition (Chicago: Haymarket, 2021); Michael Roberts, The Long Depression: How It Happened, Why It Happened, and What Happens Next (Chicago: Haymarket, 2016); Anwar Shaikh, Capitalism: Competition, Conflict, Crises (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

46. Rhys Jenkins, “Transnational Corporations, Competition and Monopoly,” Review of Radical Political Economics 21, no. 4 (December 1989): 12–32.

47. Richard Bryan, “Monopoly in Marxist Method,” Capital and Class 9, no. 2 (1985):72–92; Jenkins, “Transnational Corporations.”

48. Janine Berg, Marianne Furrer, Ellie Harmon, Uma Rani, and M. Six Silberman, Digital Labour Platforms and the Future of Work: Towards Decent Work in the Online World (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 2018); Christian Fuchs, “Labour in Informational Capitalism,” Information Society 26, no. 3 (2010): 176–196; Nick Dyer-Witheford, Cyber-Proletariat: Global Labour in the Digital Vortex (London: Pluto, 2015).

49. See, e.g., Trebor Scholz, Digital Labor: The Internet as Playground and Factory (New York: Routledge, 2013); Lilly Irani, “Difference and Dependence among Digital Workers: The Case of Amazon Mechanical Turk,” South Atlantic Quarterly 114, (2015): 225–234; Christian Fuchs and Sebastian Sevignani, “What Is Digital Labour? What Is Digital Work? What's Their Difference? And Why Do These Questions Matter for Understanding Social Media?” TripleC: Cognition, Communication, Co-operation 11, no. 2 (2013): 237–292; Valerio De Stefano, “The Rise of the ‘Just-in-Time Workforce’: On-Demand Work, Crowdwork and Labour Protection in the ‘Gig Economy,’” Comparative Labor Law and Policy Journal 37 (2015): 461–471; Mark Graham, Isis Hjorth, and Vili Lehdonvirta, “Digital Labour and Development: Impacts of Global Digital Labour Platforms and the Gig Economy on Worker Livelihoods,” Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research 23, no. 2 (May 2017): 135–162; Alex Rosenblat, Uberland: How Algorithms Are Rewriting the Rules of Work (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018); Mark Graham and Jamie Woodcock, The Gig Economy: A Critical Introduction (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2020).

50. James Cortada, The Digital Hand: How Computers Changed the Work of American Manufacturing, Transportation, and Retail Industries (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); James Cortada, The Digital Hand, vol. 3, How Computers Changed the Work of American Public Sector Industries (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

51. Kim Nash, “Amazon, Alphabet and Walmart Were Top IT Spenders in 2018,” Wall Street Journal, January 17, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-alphabet-and-walmart-were-top-it-spenders-in-2018–11547754757.

52. Dan Schiller, “Labor and Digital Capitalism,” in The Routledge Companion to Labor and Media, ed. Richard Maxwell (London: Taylor & Francis, 2015), 3–17; Ursula Huws, Labour in Contemporary Capitalism: What Next? (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019).

53. Maurizio Lazzarato, “Immaterial Labor,” in Radical Thought in Italy: A Potential Politics, ed. Paolo Virno and Michael Hardt (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 133–149; Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).

54. Tiziana Terranova, “Free Labor: Producing Culture for the Digital Economy,” Social Text 18, no. 2 (2000): 33–58.

55. Mosco and Herman, “Critical Theory,” 883–889; Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1998).

56. Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital, 393.

57. Michael Burawoy, Manufacturing Consent: Changes in the Labor Process Under Monopoly Capitalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); P. K. Edwards, “Understanding Conflict in the Labour Process: The Logic and Autonomy of Struggle,” in Labour Process Theory, ed. David Knights and Hugh Willmott (London: Macmillan), 125–152.

58. Stuart Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880–1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Sanford Jacoby, Modern Manors: Welfare Capitalism since the New Deal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).

59. Herbert Schiller, Who Knows: Information in the Age of the Fortune 500 (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1981), 7.

60. Anthony Smith, The Geopolitics of Information: How Western Culture Dominates the World (London: Faber & Faber, 1980).

61. Ryan Heath, “China's Tech Authoritarianism Too Big to Contain,” Politico, November 20, 2020, https://www.politico.com/news/2020/11/20/chinas-tech-authoritarianism-438646.

62. Yuezhi Zhao, “The Challenge of China: Contribution to a Transcultural Political Economy of Communication for the Twenty-First Century,” in The Handbook of Political Economy of Communication, ed. Janet Wasko, Graham Murdock, and Helena Sousa (Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), 558–582; Yu Hong, Networking China: The Digital Transformation of the Chinese Economy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2017); Min Tang, “From ‘Bring-in’ to ‘Going Out’: Transnationalizing China's Internet Capital through State Policies,” Chinese Journal of Communication 13, no. 1 (2019): 27–47; Hong Shen, “Across the Great (Fire) Wall: China and the Global Internet” (PhD diss., University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 2017).

63. Dwayne Winseck, “The Geopolitical Economy of the Global Internet Infrastructure,” Journal of Information Policy 7 (2017): 228–267.

64. Wood, Empire of Capital, 130.

65. See ibid., 89–117.

Chapter 1. Searching for Profits

1. Janet Abbate, Inventing the Internet (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).

2. Laurie Flynn, “With Goto.com's Search Engine, the Highest Bidder Shall Be Ranked First,” New York Times, March 16,1996, http://www.nytimes.com/1998/03/16/business/with-gotocom-s-search-engine-the-highest-bidder-shall-be-ranked-first.html?pagewanted=2&src=pm.

3. Vincent Mosco, The Political Economy of Communication (London: Sage, 2009), 132.

4. Immanuel Wallerstein, Historical Capitalism (London: Verso, 1983), 27.

5. Christoph Hermann, The Critique of Commodification: Contours of a Post-Capitalist Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021), 41.

6. See ibid., Chapter 3, “The Politics of Commodification in the Critique of Commodification.” The chapter explains neoliberalism's strategies of commodification.

7. Janet Wasko, “The Study of the Political Economy of the Media in the Twenty-First Century,” International Journal of Media and Cultural Politics 10, no. 1 (2014): 261.

8. Mosco, Political Economy, 144.

9. David Harvey, “The ‘New’ Imperialism: Accumulation by Dispossession,” Socialist Register 40 (2004):74.

10. Matt Crain, Profit over Privacy: How Surveillance Advertising Conquered the Internet (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2021), 11.

11. Jean-Charles Rochet and Jean Tirole, “Platform Competition in Two-Sided Markets,” Journal of the European Economic Association 1, no. 4 (2003): 990–1029.

12. Elizabeth Van Couvering, “The Political Economy of New Media Revisited: Platformisation, Mediatisation, and the Politics of Algorithms,” Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2017, https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/41374/paper0225.pdf.

13. Nizar Abdelkafi, Christian Raasch, Angela Roth, and R. Srinvasan, “Multi-Sided Platforms,” Electron Markets 29 (2019): 553–559.

14. José-Marie Griffiths and Donald W. King, “US Information Retrieval System Evolution and Evaluation (1945–1975),” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 25, no. 3 (2002): 35–55.

15. For an in-depth history of pre-web search engines, see Dale J. Vidmar and Connie J. Anderson-Cahoon, “Internet Search Tools: History to 2000,” in Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, ed. John D. McDonald and Michael Levine-Clark (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2018), 2516–2525.

16. Elizabeth Van Couvering, “Search Engine Bias: The Structuration of Traffic on the World-Wide Web” (PhD diss., London School of Economics, 2010), 96–97.

17. “On the Origins of Google,” National Science Foundation, August 14, 2004, http://www.nsf.gov/discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100660.

18. “The Stanford Integrated Digital Library Project,” National Science Foundation, http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=9411306.

19. Robert H. Zakon, “Hobbes’ Internet Timeline 25 Growth,” accessed May 3, 2020, https://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/#.

20. Dan Schiller, Digital Capitalism: Networking the Global Market System (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).

21. Claire-Lise Benaud and Sever Bordeianu, Outsourcing Library Operations in Academic Libraries: An Overview of Issues and Outcomes (Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1998), 19.

22. This has also led to the erosion of the First Sale Doctrine, the traditional balance in US copyright law and the pillar on which libraries are built so that they can legally buy and lend copies of copyrighted works. There is a robust literature on the history and future of First Sale. See, e.g., Ruth A. Reese, “The First Sale Doctrine in the Era of Digital Networks,” Boston College Law Review 44, no. 2 (2003): 577–652, http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/bclr/vol44/iss2/9.

23. Barbara Becker and Oliver Gassmann, “Corporate Incubators: Industrial R&D and What Universities Can Learn from Them,” Journal of Technology Transfer 3, no. 4 (2006): 469–483.

24. Derek Bok, Universities in the Marketplace: The Commercialization of Higher Education (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 12.

25. Clark Kerr, The Great Transformation in Higher Education, 1960–1980 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991).

26. Bruce Kogut, The Global Internet Economy (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), 6.

27. Sam Ro, “Venture Capital Funding Is Nowhere Near the Levels We Saw During the Dot-Com Bubble,” Business Insider, April 10, 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/historical-venture-capital-funding-2014-4.

28. Shane Greenstein, How the Internet Became Commercial: Innovation, Privatization, and the Birth of a New Network (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), 752–757.

29. Brent Goldfarb, Michael Pfarrer, and David Kirsch, “Searching for Ghosts: Business Survival, Unmeasured Entrepreneurial Activity and Private Equity Investment in the Dot-Com Era,” Robert H. Smith School Research Paper No. RHS 06–027, October 12, 2005, http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.825687.

30. Ro, “Venture Capital Funding.”

31. Brian McCullough, How the Internet Happened: From Netscape to the iPhone (New York: Liveright, 2019), 135.

32. Brent Goldfarb and David Kirsch, “Small Ideas, Big Ideas, Bad Ideas, Good Ideas: ‘Get Big Fast’ and Dot Com Venture Creation,” Robert H. Smith School Research Paper No. RHS-06–049, November 2006, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=946446.

33. Christopher Nerney, “The Up and Coming,” Network World, April 20, 1998, 57–58.

34. Phil Carpenter, EBrands: Building an Internet Business at Breakneck Speed (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2000), 197.

35. Julia Pitta, “!&#$%.com,” Forbes, August 23, 1999, 77.

36. Ian Chaston, Entrepreneurial Management in Small Firms (Los Angeles: Sage, 2009), 67.

37. Karen Angel, Inside Yahoo! Reinvention and the Road Ahead (New York: Wiley, 2002), 39.

38. Phil Carpenter, EBrands, 192.

39. “Yahoo! Ends Netscape Partnership,” CBS, May 22, 1998, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/yahoo-ends-netscape-partnership/.

40. Angel, Inside Yahoo!, 124.

41. Anne Callery and Deb Tracy Proulx, “Yahoo! Cataloging the Web,” Journal of Internet Cataloging 1, no. 2 (2009): 57–64, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J141v01n01_06.

42. Joan Rigdon, “Yahoo! IPO Soars in First Day, But Honeymoon May Not Last,” Wall Street Journal, April 15, 1996, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB849504268462964500.

43. Ken Yamada, “Yahoo Soliciting Advertisers for Internet Directory Service,” Computer Reseller News, August 7, 1995, 54.

44. Van Couvering, “Search Engine Bias,” 97–98.

45. John McDonough and Karen Egolf, The Advertising Age Encyclopedia of Advertising (New York: Routledge, 2015), 804.

46. John A. Deighton, “The Future of Interactive Marketing,” Harvard Business Review 74, no. 6 (November–December 1996): 151–160, https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=7213/.

47. Fernando Bermejo, The Internet Audience: Constitution and Measurement (New York: Peter Lang, 2007), 183.

48. Joseph Turow, The Daily You: How the New Advertising Industry Is Defining Your Identity and Your Worth (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011).

49. “Another Engine Takes Ads by the Click,” CNET, May 22, 1996, http://news.cnet.com/Another-engine-takes-ads-by-the-click/2100–1033_3–212736.html.

50. Turow, Daily You, 51.

51. Debra Williamson, “Early Internet Days Perilous,” AdAge, March 28, 2005, http://adage.com/article/75-years-of-ideas/early-internet-days-perilous/102660/.

52. Bermejo, Internet Audience, 178.

53. Kim Cleland, “Media Buying and Planning: Marketers Want Solid Data on Value of Internet Ad Buys: Demand Swells for Information That Compares Media Options,” Ad Age, August 3, 1998, http://adage.com/article/news/media-buying-planning-marketers-solid-data-internet-ad-buys-demand-swells-information-compares-media-options/64931/.

54. Janice Maloney, “Yahoo: Still Searching for Profits on the Internet,” Fortune, May 26, 2013, http://fortune.com/2013/05/26/yahoo-still-searching-for-profits-on-the-internet-fortune-1996/.

55. Van Couvering, “Search Engine Bias,” 102–114.

56. David Kleinbard, “The $1.7 Trillion Dot.com Lesson,” CNN Money, November 9, 2000, http://money.cnn.com/2000/11/09/technology/overview/.

57. Robert Brenner, “New Boom or New Bubble?” New Left Review 24 (January 2004), http://newleftreview.org/II/25/robert-brenner-new-boom-or-new-bubble.

58. Joseph Menn, “77% of Advertising on the Web Is Bought by Dot-com,” Los Angeles Times, September 6, 2000, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-sep-06-fi-16112-story.html; Eileen Colkin, “Web Ads Upend Industry Practices,” InformationWeek, June 13, 2005, 54–56.

59. Peter Gumbel, “E-Commerce (A Special Report): Selling Strategies—Advertising—Ads Click: According to a Major New Survey, Some Types of Online Advertising May Deliver the Goods, After All,” Wall Street Journal, October 29, 2001, http://search.proquest.com/docview/398941244?accountid=14026.

60. Owen Gibson, “Cash from Clicking,” Guardian, April 8, 2002, http://www.theguardian.com/media/2002/apr/08/mondaymediasection9.

61. Angel, Inside Yahoo!, 195.

62. “Engine Sells Results, Draws Fire,” CNET, June 21, 1996, https://www.cnet.com/news/engine-sells-results-draws-fire/.

63. Flynn, “Goto.com's Search Engine.”

64. Danny Sullivan, “GoTo Sells Positions,” Search Engine Watch, March 2, 1998, https://web.archive.org/web/20140222030839/http://searchenginewatch.com/article/2066843/GoTo-Sells-Positions.

65. Ibid.

66. Saul Hansell, “Clicks for Sale: Paid Placement Is Catching on in Web Searches,” New York Times, June 4, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/04/business/clicks-for-sale-paid-placement-is-catching-on-in-web-searches.html/.

67. According to TechCrunch, the idea of selling keywords did not originate with Bill Gross's GoTo.com. It came from Scott Banister's Submit-it service, which helped website owners submit their URLs to search engines and directories. See “Bubble Blinders: The Untold Story of the Search Business Model,” TechCrunch, August 29, 2010, https://techcrunch.com/2010/08/29/bubble-blinders-the-untold-story-of-the-search-business-model/.

68. Brad Geddes, Advanced Google AdWords (Indianapolis, IN: Wiley, 2010), 2–6.

69. Adam Goodman, “Small Advertisers Feel the Pinch as GoTo.com Defends Price Increase,” Search Engine Guide, May 10, 2001, https://web.archive.org/web/20071123133001/http://www.searchengineguide.com/andrew-goodman/small-advertisers-feel-the-pinch-as-goto-defends-price-increase.php.

70. Geddes, Advanced Google AdWords, 3–4.

71. John Battelle, The Search: How Google and Its Rivals Rewrote the Rules of Business and Transformed Our Culture (New York: Portfolio, 2006), 112.

72. Sergey Brin and Larry Page, “The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine,” Computer Networks and ISDN Systems 30, nos. 1–7 (1998): 107–117, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016975529800110X.

73. Douglas Edwards, I'm Feeling Lucky: The Confessions of Google Employee Number 59 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011), 60.

74. Shivanshu Rastogi, Zubair Iqbal, and Prabal Bhatnagar, “Search Engine Techniques: A Review,” MIT International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technology 2, no. 2 (2013): 56–57.

75. Ibid.

76. Van Couvering, “Search Engine Bias,” 99.

77. Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York: Penguin, 2009), 63.

78. Nick Srnicek, Platform Capitalism (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2017), 84.

79. David Vise and Mark Malseed, The Google Story (New York: Delacorte, 2005), 98.

80. Battelle, Search, 124.

81. Cookies are small pieces of code that websites deliver to a visitor's browser and stick around as the person visits other sites.

82. Crain, Profit over Privacy, 70.

83. Ibid.

84. Crain, Profit over Privacy, 69–72; Turow, Daily You, 57–60.

85. Federal Trade Commission, Privacy Online: A Report to Congress, June 1998, https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/privacy-online-report-congress/priv-23a.pdf.

86. Ginny Marvin, “Google AdWords Turns 15: A Look Back at the Origins of a $60 Billion Business,” Search Engine Land, October 25, 2015, https://searchengineland.com/google-adwords-turns-15-a-look-back-at-the-origins-of-a-60-billion-business-234579.

87. Mindy Charski, “Google's Ad Program Stresses Simplicity,” ZDNet, August 23, 2000, https://www.zdnet.com/article/googles-ad-program-stresses-simplicity/.

88. Auletta, Googled, 63.

89. Will Oremus, “Google's Big Break,” Slate, October 13, 2013, http://www.slate.com/articles/business/when_big_businesses_were_small/2013/10/google_s_big_break_how_bill_gross_goto_com_inspired_the_adwords_business.html.

90. Benjamin Edelman, Michael Ostrovsky, and Michael Schwarz, “Internet Advertising and the Generalized Second-Price Auction: Selling Billions of Dollars Worth of Keywords,” American Economic Review 97, no. 1 (2005): 246.

91. Mark Levene, An Introduction to Search Engines and Web Navigation (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2010), 154.

92. Saul Hansell, “Google Wants to Dominate Madison Avenue, Too,” New York Times, October 20, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/30/business/yourmoney/30google.html?pagewanted=al.

93. David Vise and Mark Malseed, The Google Story (London: Macmillan, 2005), 90.

94. Shuai Yuan, Ahmad Zainal Abidin, Marc Sloan, and Jun Wang, “Internet Advertising: An Interplay Among Advertisers, Online Publishers, Ad Exchanges and Web Users,” arXiv, July 2012, 3–4.

95. John Battelle, “Interview with Google's Chief Business Officer Omid Kordestain,” John Battelle's Search Blog, October 26, 2005, http://battellemedia.com/archives/2005/10/titans_column_omid_kordestani.php.

96. Kunur Patel, “Google Takes Mobile Ads to 1 Million More Advertisers,” Advertising Age, June 7, 2012, http://adage.com/article/digital/google-takes-mobile-ads-1-million-advertisers/235211/.

97. Brian Morrissey, “Today in History: Google Buys Applied Semantics,” Digiday, April 23, 2013, https://digiday.com/media/today-in-history-google-buys-applied-semantics/.

98. Federal Trade Commission, Federal Trade Commission Closes Google/Double-Click Investigation, December 20, 2007, https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2007/12/federal-trade-commission-closes-googledoubleclick-investigation.

99. Brett Crosby, “The Path to Acquisition,” Stanford University Technology Venture Program, February 13, 2008, http://ecorner.stanford.edu/authorMaterialInfo.html?mid=1905.

100. Sarah Lacy, “Analyzing Google's Analytics Strategy,” Business Week, November 14, 2005, https://web.archive.org/web/20120712101340/http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2005–11–14/analyzing-googles-analytics-strategy.

101. Ibid.

102. Lionel Sujay Vailshery, “Market Share of Leading Web Analytics Technologies Worldwide in 2021,” Statista, September 15, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1258557/web-analytics-market-share-technology-worldwide.

103. “Celebrating 95 Years of Innovation,” Nielsen, 2017, https://sites.nielsen.com/timelines/our-history/.

104. Steven Levy, “Secret of Googlenomics: Data-Fueled Recipe Brews Profitability,” Wired, May 22, 2009.

105. De Liu, Jianqing Chen, and Andrew Whinton, “Current Issues in Keyword Auction,” in Business Computing, ed. Gediminas Adomavicius and Alok Grupa (Bingley, UK: Emerald, 2009), 73.

106. Crain, Profit over Privacy, 63.

107. Michael Indergaard, Silicon Alley: The Rise and Fall of a New Media District (New York: Routledge, 2004), 48.

108. Tim O'Reilly, “What Is Web 2.0? Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software,” Communication Strategies 1, no. 1 (2001): 21.

109. Loren Fox, “DoubleClick Climbs to the Top of the Ad World,” Upside, February 2000, 59.

110. John Battele, “The Advertising System,” John Battele's Search Blog, April 9, 2007, http://battellemedia.com/archives/2007/04/the_advertising_operating_system.php.

111. “Useful Responses Take Many Forms,” Google, https://www.google.com/search/howsearchworks/responses/.

112. Michael Zimmer, “The Externalities of Search 2.0: The Emerging Privacy Threats When the Drive for the Perfect Search Engine Meets Web 2.0,” First Monday no. 13, 3 (2008), https://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2136/1944&gt#author.

113. “History of Google Algorithm Updates,” Search Engine Journal, https://www.searchenginejournal.com/google-algorithm-history/.

114. Edwards, I'm Feeling Lucky, 281.

115. Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015).

116. Tripp Mickle and Keach Hagey, “Google Misled Publishers and Advertisers, Unredacted Lawsuit Alleges,” Wall Street Journal, January 14, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/google-misled-publishers-and-advertisers-unredacted-lawsuit-alleges-11642176036.

117. Jane Chung, “Big Tech, Big Cash: Washington's New Power Players,” Public Citizen, March 21, 2021, https://www.citizen.org/article/big-tech-lobbying-update/.

118. Mark Sullivan, “Google's Anti-Tracking Move Is Good for Privacy, and Even Better for Google,” Fast Company, March 4, 2021, https://www.fastcompany.com/90610781/google-third-party-cookies-tracking-advertising.

119. Tony Smith, “Marx, Technology, and the Pathological Future of Capitalism,” in The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx, ed. Matt Vidal, Tony Smith, Tomás Rotta, and Paul Prew (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 341–359.

120. Tony Smith, “Technology and History in Capitalism: Marxian and NeoSchumpeterian Perspectives” in The Constitution of Capital: Essays on Volume One of Marx's Capital, ed. Ricardo Bellofiore and Nicola Taylor (New York: Palgrave Macmillan), 224.

121. David Harvey, Marx, Capital and the Madness of Economic Reason (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 119.

Chapter 2. Situating Search

1. Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006).

2. Robert McChesney, Digital Disconnect: How Capitalism Is Turning the Internet Against Democracy (New York: New Press, 2013).

3. Ibid.; Nikos Smyrnaios, Internet Oligopoly: The Corporate Takeover of Our Digital World (Bingley, UK: Emerald, 2018); Nick Srnicek, Platform Capitalism (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2017).

4. John Bellamy Foster and Robert McChesney, The Endless Crisis: How Monopoly-Finance Capital Produces Stagnation and Upheaval from the USA to China (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2017), 67–72.

5. Anwar Shaikh, Capitalism: Competition, Conflict and Crisis (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 211.

6. Willi Semmler, “On the Classical Theory of Competition, Value, and Prices of Production,” Australian Economic Papers 23, no. 42 (1984): 136.

7. Richard Bryan, “Monopoly in Marxist Method,” Capital and Class 9, no. 2 (1985): 72–92.

8. Rhys Jenkins, “Transnational Corporations, Competition and Monopoly,” Review of Radical Political Economics 21, no. 4 (December 1989): 15–16.

9. Kim Moody, “Labour and the Contradictory Logic of Logistics,” Work Organization, Labour and Organization 3, no. 1 (2019): 81.

10. David Harvey, The Limits of Capital (London: Verso, 2018), 379.

11. Dwayne Winseck, “The Geopolitical Economy of the Global Internet Infrastructure,” Journal of Information Policy 7 (2017): 228–267.

12. Gary Fields, Territories of Profit: Communications, Capitalist Development, and the Innovation of G.F. Swift and Dell Computer (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004).

13. Tim Wu, The Master Switch: The Rise and Fall of Information Empires (New York: Knopf, 2010), 280.

14. Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London: Routledge, 2013).

15. David Harvey, Marx, Capital and the Madness of Economic Reason (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018),120.

16. Matt McGee, “Google's New Philosophy: We're a Portal,” Search Engine Land, September 9, 2010, http://searchengineland.com/googles-new-philosophy-were-a-portal-50216.

17. Claire Cain Miller, “Media Decoder: Google Says It Will Buy Frommer's for Content,” New York Times, August 14, 2012, https://archive.nytimes.com/query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage-9C0DEFDD1F38F937A2575BC0A9649D8B63.html.

18. See Alphabet Inc., Form 10-K, December 31, 2021, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204422000019/goog-20211231.htm#i0ef93c820da04204a9c5a49f49a3b2eb_16.

19. United States of America v. Google LLC (1:20-cv-03010), https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1328941/download.

20. Ibid.

21. Daisuke Wakabayashi and Jack Nicas, “Apple, Google and a Deal That Controls the Internet,” New York Times, October 25, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/25/technology/apple-google-search-antitrust.html.

22. Nils-Gerrit Wunsch, “Number of Alphabet (Google) Patent Families Worldwide by Filing Year from 1999 to 2019, by Legal Status,” Statista, August 20, 2010, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1033921/number-of-alphabet-google-patents-by-filing-year-and-status-worldwide/.

23. Jenkins, “Transnational Corporations,”15–16.

24. Jessica Clement, “Number of Active Advertisers on Facebook from 1st Quarter 2016 to 3rd Quarter 2020,” Statista, January 28, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/778191/active-facebook-advertisers/.

25. Jordan Novet, “Amazon Has a $31 Billion a Year Advertising Business,” CNBC, February 2, 2022, https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/03/amazon-has-a-31-billion-ayear-advertising-business.html.

26. Alexandra Bruell, “Amazon Surpasses 10 Percent of U.S. Digital Ad Market Share,” Wall Street Journal, April 2, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-surpasses-10-of-u-s-digital-ad-market-share-11617703200.

27. Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Google Aims to Be the Anti-Amazon of E-Commerce. It Has a Long Way to Go,” New York Times, March 27, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/27/technology/google-shopping-amazon.html.

28. Jay Greene, “Look Out, Google: Amazon's Eyeing Your Turf,” Cnet, May 24, 2013, https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/look-out-google-amazons-eyeing-your-turf/.

29. Suzanne Vranica, “Amazon Puts a Dent in Google's Ad Dominance,” Wall Street Journal, April 4, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazons-rise-in-ad-searches-dents-googles-dominance-11554414575.

30. Ibid.

31. “Leading Amazon Advertisers in the United States in 2020, by Advertising Spending,” Statista, December 7 2021, https://www-statista-com.stanford.idm.oclc.org/statistics/1241378/amazon-advertisers/.

32. Geoff Colvin, “AT&T Has Become a New Kind of Media Giant,” Fortune, March 21, 2019, https://fortune.com/longform/att-media-company/.

33. Claire Miller, “Revenue and Profit Rise at Google, but Mobile Is a Persistent Challenge,” New York Times, January 30, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/31/technology/revenue-and-profit-rise-at-google-but-mobile-struggles-continue.html.

34. Vittorio Hernandez, “Google's Eric Schmidt Foresees Android Smartphone Users to Hit 2 Billion in Next 2 Years; Gives Thumbs up to New Motorola Gadgets,” International Business Times, April 17, 2009, https://www.ibtimes.com.au/googles-eric-schmidt-foresees-android-smartphone-users-hit-2-billion-next-2-years-gives-thumbs-new.

35. Tim Bradshaw and Patrick McGee, “Apple Develops Alternative to Google Search,” Financial Times, October 28, 2020, https://www-ft-com.stanford.idm.oclc.org/content/fd311801-e863–41fe-82cf-3d98c4c47e26.

36. Ibid.

37. Kif Leswing, “Apple's Privacy Change Is Poised to Increase the Power of Its App Store,” CNBC, March 19, 2021, https://www.cnbc.com/2021/03/19/apples-privacy-change-could-increase-the-power-of-its-app-store.html.

38. Patrick McGee, “Apple's Privacy Changes Create Windfall for Its Own Advertising Business,” Financial Times, October 17, 2021, https://www.ft.com/content/074b881f-a931–4986–888e-2ac53e286b9d.

39. “Leading Facebook Mobile Advertisers in the United States in 1st Quarter 2020, by Advertising Spending,” Statista, October 19, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1112274/us-facebook-mobile-advertisers-ranked-by-ad-spend/.

40. Felix Richter, “Facebook's Growth Is Fuelled by Mobile Ads,” Statista, July 25, 2019, https://www.statista.com/chart/2496/facebook-revenue-by-segment/.

41. Garett Sloane, “How Header Bidding Wars Led to a Google Antitrust Case and Claims of Collusion with Facebook,” Ad Age, January 25, 2025, https://adage.com/article/digital/how-header-bidding-wars-led-google-antitrust-case-and-claims-collusion-facebook/2307586.

42. The State of Texas, et al. v. Google LLC, https://www.texasattorneygeneral.gov/sites/default/files/images/admin/2020/Press/20201216percent20COMPLAINT_REDACTED.pdf.

43. Ryan Whitwam, “Samsung Has Android Under Its Heel, and There's Nothing Google Can Do About It,” Extreme Tech, March 20, 2013, http://www.extremetech.com/computing/151140-samsung-has-android-under-its-heel-and-theres-nothing-google-can-do-about-it.

44. Bureau of Industry and Security, “Entity List,” https://www.bis.doc.gov/index.php/policy-guidance/lists-of-parties-of-concern/entity-list.

45. Shelly Banjo and Mark Bergen, “The Trade War Didn't Stop a Google and Huawei AI Collaboration,” Bloomberg, April 1, 2019, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019–04–01/the-trade-war-didn-t-stop-a-google-and-huawei-ai-collaboration.

46. Kiran Stacey and James Politi, “Google Warns of US National Security Risks from Huawei Ban,” Financial Times, June 6, 2019, https://www.ft.com/content/3bbb6fec-88c5–11e9-a028–86cea8523dc2.

47. Amir Efrati, “Samsung Sparks Anxiety at Google,” Wall Street Journal, February 25, 2013, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323699704578324220017879796.

48. Dan Frommer and Rani Molla, “Why Google Is Spending $1.1 Billion to ‘Acqhire’ 2,000 HTC Engineers,” Vox, September 21, 2017, https://www.vox.com/2017/9/21/16338500/google-htc-pixel-phone-mixed-reality-team-acquisition.

49. Vincent Mosco, To the Cloud: Big Data in a Turbulent World (Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2014), 143.

50. Ibid., 123–174.

51. “Gartner Says Global IT Spending to Reach $3.8 Trillion in 2019,” Gartner, January 28, 2019, https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2019-01-28-gartner-says-global-it-spending-to-reach-3–8-trillion.

52. Joey Roulette, “Elon Musk's SpaceX Inks Satellite Connectivity Deal with Google Cloud,” Verge, May 13, 2021, https://www.theverge.com/2021/5/13/22433982/elon-musk-spacex-Internet-connectivity-deal-google-cloud.

53. “Vendor Market Share in Cloud Infrastructure Services Market Worldwide 2017–2021,” Statista, October 29, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/967365/worldwide-cloud-infrastructure-services-market-share-vendor/.

54. “This Is IT: Federal Cloud Spending to Top $8 Billion in FY 2021,” Bloomberg Law, August 20, 2021, https://news.bloomberglaw.com/tech-and-telecom-law/this-is-it-federal-cloud-spending-to-top-8-billion-in-fy-2021.

55. Vivek Kundra, “Federal Cloud Computing Strategy,” The White House, February 8, 2011, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/omb/assets/egov_docs/federal-cloud-computing-strategy.pdf.

56. Mosco, To the Cloud, 137–147.

57. Lee Fung, “Google Hedges on Promise to End Controversial Involvement in Military Drone Contract,” Intercept, March 1, 2019, https://theintercept.com/2019/03/01/google-project-maven-contract/.

58. Ibid.

59. Sundar Pichai, “AI at Google: Our Principles,” Google Blog, June 7, 2018, https://blog.google/topics/ai/ai-principles/.

60. Cade Metz, “Amazon's Invasion of the CIA Is a Seismic Shift in Cloud Computing,” Wired, June 18, 2013, https://www.wired.com/2013/06/amazon-cia/.

61. Kate Conger, David E. Sanger, and Scott Shane, “Microsoft Wins Pentagon's $10 Billion JEDI Contract, Thwarting Amazon,” New York Times, October 25, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/25/technology/dod-jedi-contract.html.

62. Ibid.

63. Victoria Albert, “Amazon Sues over $10 Billion Pentagon Contract Awarded to Microsoft,” CBS News, November 22, 2019, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/amazon-microsoft-pentagon-contract-amazon-sues-over-10-billion-pentagon-contract-awarded-to-microsoft/.

64. Scott Shane and Karen Weise, “Trump Says He May Intervene in Huge Pentagon Contract Sought by Amazon,” New York Times, July 18, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/18/us/politics/trump-amazon-defense-department-contract.html.

65. Naomi Nix and Anthony Capaccio, “Pentagon Moves to Split Cloud Deal Between Microsoft, Amazon,” Bloomberg, July 21, 2021, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021–07–06/pentagon-scraps-10-billion-cloud-contract-award-to-microsoft.

66. Joseph Tsidulko, “Microsoft Wins $1.76 Billion Services Contract for Military as JEDI Decision Looms,” CRN, January 17, 2019, https://www.crn.com/news/cloud/microsoft-wins-1–76-billion-services-contract-for-u-s-military-as-jedi-decision-looms.

67. Makena Kelly, “Microsoft Secures $480 Million HoloLens Contract from US Army,” Verge, November 28, 2018, https://www.theverge.com/2018/11/28/18116939/microsoft-army-hololens-480-million-contract-magic-leap.

68. Klint Finley, “Microsoft CEO Defends Army Contract for Augmented Reality,” Wired, https://www.wired.com/story/microsoft-ceo-defends-army-contract-augmented-reality/.

69. Reuven Cohen, “Google Announces Cloud Infrastructure Service: Google Compute Engine,” Forbes, July 28, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/reuvencohen/2012/06/28/google-announces-google-compute-engine-iaas/.

70. Cade Metz, “Google's Bold Plan to Overthrow Amazon as King of the Cloud,” Wired, March 24, 2014, http://www.wired.com/2014/03/urs-google-story/.

71. Tariq Shaukat, “Investing in Google Infrastructure, Investing in Nevada,” Google Cloud, July 1, 2019, https://cloud.google.com/blog/products/infrastructure/investing-in-google-infrastructure-investing-in-nevada.

72. Jordan Novet, “Google's Capital Expenditures Doubled in 2018, the Fastest Growth in at Least Four Years,” CNBC, February 4, 2019, https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/04/googles-capital-expenditures-doubled-in-2018.html.

73. Christopher Mims, “Google, Amazon, Meta and Microsoft Weave a Fiber-Optic Web of Power,” Wall Street Journal, January 15, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/google-amazon-meta-and-microsoft-weave-a-fiber-optic-web-of-power-11642222824.

74. Thomas Freeman and Jason Warner, “What's Important in the Data Center Location Decision,” Area Development, Spring 2011, http://www.areadevelopment.com/siteSelection/may2011/data-center-location-decision-factors2011–62626727.shtml.

75. Steven Levy, In the Plex: How Google Thinks, Works, and Shapes Our Lives (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 182.

76. Ariel Schwartz, “Google Reveals Data Center ‘Manhattan Project,’” Fast Company, April 2, 2009, https://www.fastcompany.com/1257936/google-reveals-data-center-manhattan-project.

77. Steven Levy, “Google Throws open Doors to Its Top-Secret Data Center,” Wired, October 17, 2012, http://www.wired.com/2012/10/ff-inside-google-data-center/.

78. “Discover Our Data Center Locations,” Google Data Center, https://www.google.com/about/datacenters/locations/.

79. “Revenue Distribution of Alphabet from 2015 to 2018, by Region,” Statista, February 5, 2020, https://www.statista.com/statistics/266250/regional-distribution-of-googles-revenue/.

80. Maureen Farrell, Benoit Faucon, and Summer Said, “Google Weighs Unusual Bid with Giant Oil Firm Aramco to Rev up the Saudi Tech Sector,” Wall Street Journal, February 1, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/google-parent-alphabet-and-aramco-in-talks-to-build-tech-hub-in-saudi-arabia-1517495498?mod=e2tw&page=1&pos=2.

81. David Morris, “Tim Cook and Sergey Brin Met with the Saudi Crown Prince in Silicon Valley,” Fortune, April 8, 2018, https://fortune.com/2018/04/08/tim-cook-and-sergey-brin-met-with-the-saudi-crown-prince-in-silicon-valley/.

82. “Saudi Arabia: Google Must Halt Plans to Establish Cloud Region,” Amnesty International, March 26, 2021, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/05/google-must-halt-plans-to-establish-cloud-region-in-saudi-arabia/.

83. “Azure Datacenter,” Microsoft, https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/resources/videos/azure-datacenter/.

84. Ross Wilkers, “Microsoft Cloud Infrastructure Spend Totals $1B per Month,” Washington Technology, May 12, 2017, https://washingtontechnology.com/articles/2017/05/12/microsoft-cloud-investments.aspx.

85. “Global Datacenters, Threat, Vulnerability, and Risk Assessment,” Microsoft, https://servicetrust.microsoft.com/ViewPage/datacentertvra.

86. Rich Miller, “Amazon Plans Epic Data Center Expansion in Northern Virginia,” Data Frontier, November 6, 2017, https://datacenterfrontier.com/amazon-plans-epic-data-center-expansion-in-northern-virginia/.

87. “Amazon Atlas,” Wikileaks, https://wikileaks.org/amazon-atlas/.

88. Khalid Al Rumaihi, “The Middle East Needs a Technological Revolution. Start-Ups Can Lead the Way,” World Economic Forum, April 2, 2019, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/04/the-middle-east-needs-a-technological-revolution-start-ups-can-lead-the-way/.

89. Jordan Novet, “Amazon's Cloud Is Big Enough to Be the Fifth-Largest Business Software Company in the World,” CNBC, February 3, 2018, https://www.cnbc.com/2018/02/03/aws-is-the-fifth-biggest-business-software-company-in-the-world.html.

90. “Facebook Data Center Location,” Data Center Location, accessed February 2021, https://datacenterlocations.com/facebook/.

91. Sebastian Moss, “Apple Will Spend More Than $10bn on US Data Centers over 5 Years,” Data Center Dynamics, January 18, 2018, https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/news/apple-will-spend-more-than-10bn-on-us-data-centers-over-5-years/.

92. Paul Mozur, Daisuke Wakabayashi, and Nick Wingfield, “Apple Opening Data Center in China to Comply with Cybersecurity Law,” New York Times, July 12, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/12/business/apple-china-data-center-cybersecurity.html.

93. Nick Statt, “Google is Poaching Qualcomm and Intel Engineers for Its New Chip Design Team,” Verge, February 11, 2019, https://www.theverge.com/2019/2/11/18220436/google-pixel-ai-chips-team-division-bengaluru-india-hiring.

94. Jeff Hecht, “Undersea Data Monster: A Hong Kong-to-L.A. Submarine Cable Will Move 144,000 Gigabits Per Second,” IEEE Spectrum 55, no. 1 (2018), 10.1109/MSPEC.2018.8241732.

95. Urs Hölzle, “The Google Gospel of Speed,” Google, January 2012, https://www.thinkwithgoogle.com/future-of-marketing/digital-transformation/the-google-gospel-of-speed-urs-hoelzle/.

96. Ibid.

97. Steven Olenski, “Amazon Found Every 100ms of Latency Cost Them 1% in Sales,” Forbes, November 10, 2016 https://www.forbes.com/sites/steveolenski/2016/11/10/why-brands-are-fighting-over-milliseconds/?sh=f12d8c24ad33.

98. Drew FitzGerald and Spencer E. Ante, “Tech Firms Push to Control Web's Pipes,” Wall Street Journal, December 16, 2013, https://www.wsj.com/articles/no-headline-available-1387239940.

99. Prajakta Joshi, “Introducing Network Service Tiers: Your Cloud Network, Your Way,” Google Cloud, August 23, 2017, https://cloud.google.com/blog/products/gcp/introducing-network-service-tiers-your-cloud-network-your-way.

100. “Building One of the Highest-Capacity Cables in the US for the Los Lunas Data Center,” Facebook, https://www.facebook.com/notes/los-lunas-data-center/building-one-of-the-highest-capacity-cables-in-the-us-for-the-los-lunas-data-cen/1966776986928849/.

101. Kevin Salvadori, “Building backbone network infrastructure,” Facebook, March 2, 2019, https://engineering.fb.com/connectivity/fiber-optic-cable/.

102. “Swift Fin Traffic & Figures,” Swift, https://www.swift.com/about-us/discover-swift/fin-traffic-figures.

103. Deb Richmann, “Could Enemies Target Undersea Cables That Link the World?,” AP News, March 30, 2018, https://apnews.com/c2e7621bda224e2db2f8c654c9203a09.

104. See Daniel Headrick, The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); Dwayne Winseck and Robert Pike, Communication and Empire: Media, Markets, and Globalization, 1860–1930 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007).

105. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, “Digital Economy Report, 2019: Value Creation and Capture; Implication for Developing Countries,” September 4, 2019, https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/der2019_en.pdf.

106. Ibid.

107. “Cisco Visual Networking Index: Forecast and Trends, 2017–2022 White Paper,” Cisco, 2019, https://web.archive.org/web/20220205065052/https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/executive-perspectives/annual-internet-report/white-paper-c11–741490.pdf.

108. Doug Brake, “Submarine Cables: Critical Infrastructure for Global Communications,” Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, April 2019, http://www2.itif.org/2019-submarine-cables.pdf.

109. Rich Miller, “More Than $8 Billion in Subsea Cable Investment in the Pipeline,” Data Center Frontier, June 16, 2021, https://datacenterfrontier.com/more-than-8-billion-in-subsea-cable-investment-in-the-pipeline/.

110. International Cable Protection Committee, “Submarine Cables and BBNJ,” August 2016, https://www.un.org/depts/los/biodiversity/prepcom_files/ICC_Submarine_Cables_&_BBNJ_August_2016.pdf.

111. Dan Schiller, Digital Capitalism: Networking the Global Market System (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999), 46–49.

112. Winston Qiu, “Complete List of Google's Subsea Cable Investments,” Submarine Cable Networks, July 9, 2019, https://www.submarinenetworks.com/en/insights/complete-list-of-google-s-subsea-cable-investments.

113. Jayne Miller, “Google's Trans-Atlantic Dunant Cable Plans to Make Waves,” Telegeography, June 24, 2018, https://blog.telegeography.com/google-first-private-trans-atlantic-cable-non-telecom-dunant.

114. Joel St. Germain, “Why Is Ashburn the Data Center Capital of the World?,” Data Centers, August 29, 2019, https://www.datacenters.com/news/why-is-ashburn-the-data-center-capital-of-the-world.

115. “HAVFRUE/AEC-2,” Submarine Cable Networks, https://www.submarinenetworks.com/en/systems/trans-atlantic/havfrue.

116. List of Transatlantic Cables Connecting America and Europe, Submarine Cable Networks, https://www.submarinenetworks.com/trans-atlantic.

117. Tanwen Dawn-Hiscox, “Aqua Comms Plans Havfrue, Transatlantic Cable Network Funded by Facebook, Google,” Data Center Dynamics, January 16, 2018, https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/news/aqua-comms-plans-havfrue-transatlantic-cable-network-funded-by-facebook-google/.

118. Nicole Starosielski, The Undersea Network (Durham, NC: Duke University press, 2015).

119. Eva Dou and Drew FitzGerald, “Google, Facebook Build a Data Highway to Asia—Financed by a Chinese Developer,” Wall Street Journal, March 17, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/google-facebook-build-a-data-highway-to-asiafinanced-by-a-chinese-developer-1489575605.

120. Department of Justice, “Team Telecom Recommends That the FCC Deny Pacific Light Cable Network System's Hong Kong Undersea Cable Connection to the United States,” June 17, 2020, https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/team-telecom-recommends-fcc-deny-pacific-light-cable-network-system-s-hong-kong-undersea.

121. David Shepardson and Andrea Shalal, “US Approves Google Request to Use Segment of US–Asia Undersea Cable,” Reuters, April 8, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-china-telecommunications/google-wins-u-s-doj-backing-to-use-segment-of-u-s-asia-undersea-cable-idUSKCN21Q2TP.

122. Vijay Prashad, “In the Ruins of the Present,” Tricontinental Working Document no. 1, March 1, 2018, https://thetricontinental.org/working-document-1/.

123. Marry Ann Azevedo, “As Billions Flow into Latin America, Its Start-up Scene Scales,” CrunchBase, October 9, 2019, https://news.crunchbase.com/news/as-billions-flow-into-latin-america-its-startup-scene-scales.

124. Will Calvert, “Google Selects Equinix for Submarine Cable Landing Station in LA,” Data Center Dynamics, February 13, 2019, https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/news/google-selects-equinix-submarine-cable-landing-station-la/.

125. Helen Yaffe, We Are Cuba! How a Prevolutionary People Have Survived in a Post-Soviet World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2020).

126. John Paul Rathbone, “Google Strikes Deal to Bring Faster Web Content to Cuba,” Financial Times, March 28, 2019, https://www.ft.com/content/338bab00-5000-11e9-9c76-bf4a0ce37d49.

127. U.S. Department of State, Cuba Internet Task Force: Final Report, Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, June 19, 2019, https://www.state.gov/cuba-Internet-task-force-final-report.

128. Herbert Schiller, Living in the Number One Country: Reflections from a Critic of American Empire (New York: Seven Stories, 2000), 84–48.

129. Dan Swinhoe, “Google's Equiano Cable Lands in Togo,” Data Center Dynamics, March 18, 2022, https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/en/news/googles-equiano-cable-lands-in-togo/.

130. Drew FitzGerald, “Facebook Investment in Africa to Expand Internet Capacity Moves Ahead,” Wall Street Journal, May 14, 2020, https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-investment-in-africa-to-expand-Internet-capacity-moves-ahead-11589465142?mod=searchresults_pos1&page=1.

131. Jayne Miller, “This Is What Our 2019 Submarine Cable Map Shows Us About Content Provider Cables,” Telegeography, March 19, 2019, https://blog.telegeography.com/this-is-what-our-2019-submarine-cable-map-shows-us-about-content-provider-cables.

132. Lester Benito Garcia, “Malbec Subsea Cable Connects Argentina and Brazil with the Rest of the World,” Facebook, https://engineering.fb.com/2021/11/11/connectivity/malbec-subsea-cable/.

133. Yevgeniy Sverdlik, “Amazon's Cloud Arm Makes Its First Big Submarine Cable Investment,” Data Center Knowledge, Mary 13, 2016, https://www.datacenterknowledge.com/archives/2016/05/13/amazons-cloud-arm-makes-first-big-submarine-cable-investment.

134. Ben Treynor Sloss, “Expanding Our Global Infrastructure with New Regions and Subsea Cables,” Google Cloud Blog, January 15, 2018, https://cloud.google.com/blog/topics/inside-google-cloud/expanding-our-global-infrastructure-new-regions-and-subsea-cables.

135. Ibid.

136. Yevgeniy Sverdlik, “Google and Level 3 Interconnect Network Backbones,” Data Center Knowledge, February 8, 2016, http://www.datacenterknowledge.com/archives/2016/02/08/google-and-level-3-interconnect-network-backbones.

137. “Google Cloud,” Google, https://cloud.google.com/cdn/docs/locations.

138. “Why Cloud Infrastructure Matters,” AWS, https://aws.amazon.com/about-aws/global-infrastructure/.

139. “Azure Regions,” Microsoft, https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/global-infrastructure/regions/.

140. Mike Masnick, “Google Fiber Is Official; Free Broadband up to 5 Mbps, or Pay for Symmetrical 1 Gbps,” Techdirt, July 26, 2012, https://www.techdirt.com/2012/07/26/google-fiber-is-official-free-broadband-up-to-5-mbps-pay-symmetrical-1-gbps/.

141. Matt Hamblen, “Taxpayers Subsidizing Google Fiber Project,” Computer World, September 7, 2012, https://www.computerworld.com/article/2492159/taxpayers-subsidizing-google-fiber-project.html.

142. Eric Johnson, “America Desperately Needs Fiber Internet, and the Tech Giants Won't Save Us,” Recode, January 10, 2019, https://www.recode.net/2019/1/10/18175869/susan-crawford-fiber-book-Internet-access-comcast-verizon-google-peter-kafka-media-podcast.

143. Jon Brodkin, “AT&T Sues Louisville to Stop Google Fiber from Using Its Utility Poles,” Ars Technica, February 25, 2016, https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2016/02/att-sues-louisville-to-stop-google-fiber-from-using-its-utility-poles/.

144. Susan Crawford, “Google Fiber Was Doomed from the Start,” Wired, March 14, 2017, https://www.wired.com/2017/03/google-fiber-was-doomed-from-the-start.

145. Joseph Cotterill, “Cabling Africa: The Great Data Race to Serve the ‘Last Billion,’” Financial Times, January 31, 2021, https://www.ft.com/content/adb1130e-2844-4051-b1df-a691fc8a19b8.

146. Alexandra Wexler, “Facebook Pushes into Africa,” Wall Street Journal, October 8, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-pushes-into-africa-1539000000.

147. Olivia Solon, “‘It's Digital Colonialism’: How Facebook's Free Internet Service Has Failed Its Users,” Guardian, July 27, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jul/27/facebook-free-basics-developing-markets.

148. Behrooz Morvaridi, “Capitalist Philanthropy and Hegemonic Partnerships,” Third World Quarterly 33, no. 7 (2012):1191–1210.

149. Tom Warren, “Microsoft Wants to Close the Rural Broadband Gap with TV White Spaces,” Verge, July 11, 2017, https://www.theverge.com/2017/7/11/15953310/microsoft-rural-airband-broadband-strategy.

150. Kori Hale, “Microsoft Wants to Become Africa's Internet Plug,” Forbes, October 17, 2019, https://www.forbes.com/sites/korihale/2019/10/17/microsoft-wants-to-become-africas-Internet-plug/.

151. Larry Page, “G Is for Google,” Google, August 10, 2015, https://www.blog.google/inside-google/alphabet/google-alphabet/.

152. “Alphabet Inc. Form 10-K,” December 31, 2021, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204422000019/goog-20211231.htm#i0ef93c820da04204a9c5a49f49a3b2eb_16.

Chapter 3. Laboring Behind Search

1. Keren Dagan, “Google's Search Engine Is the 21st [Century] Infrastructure,” Webnomea, June 11, 2010, https://web.archive.org/web/20160320151425/http://Webnomena.com/2010/06/11/googles-search-engine-is-the-21st-infrastructure/.

2. Ursula Huws, “Material World: The Myth of the Weightless Economy,” Socialist Register (1999): 29–56.

3. Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1998).

4. Fabiane Santana Previtali and Cílson César Fagiani, “Deskilling and Degradation of Labour in Contemporary Capitalism: The Continuing Relevance of Braverman,” Work Organisation, Labour and Globalisation 9, no. 1 (2015): 76–91.

5. Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital, 267.

6. Ibid.

7. Fred Magdoff and Harry Magdoff, “Disposable Workers: Today's Reserve Army of Labor,” Monthly Review, April 2004, https://monthlyreview.org/2004/04/01/disposable-workers-todays-reserve-army-of-labor/.

8. “The State of Working America,” Economic Policy Institute, January 15, 2015, http://stateofworkingamerica.org/great-recession.

9. The White House Office of the Press Secretary, Remarks by the President on the Economy—Kansas, City, MO, July 30, 2014, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/30/remarks-president-economy-kansas-city-mo.

10. US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Situation, November 2019, https://web.archive.org/web/20191116111239/https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/empsit.pdf.

11. US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Alternative Measures of Labor Underutilization for States, 2019 Annual Averages, https://web.archive.org/web/20200219081618/https://www.bls.gov/lau/stalt.htm.

12. David Ruccio, “Reserve Army—Pandemic Edition,” Monthly Review, May 14, 2020, https://mronline.org/2020/05/14/reserve-army-pandemic-edition/.

13. Mary Pascaline, “Cisco Layoffs: Company to Dismiss Nearly 14,000 Employees, Report Says,” International Business Times, August 17, 2016, http://www.ibtimes.com/cisco-layoffs-company-dismiss-nearly-14000-employees-report-says-2402973.

14. “HP: Number of Employees 2010–2022,” Macrotrends, https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/HPQ/hp/number-of-employees.

15. “HP Inc.'s New CEO Unveils Plan to Cut up to 9,000 Jobs,” Associated Press, October 4, 2019, https://apnews.com/article/san-francisco-technology-us-news-business-ca-state-wire-e941d59f132146db892d15f41cb56e25/.

16. “IBM: Number of Employees 2010–2022,” Macrotrends, https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/IBM/ibm/number-of-employees.

17. Alison Griswold, “Microsoft Layoffs Would Be the Fourth-Biggest in Tech's Modern History,” Slate, July 18, 2014, http://www.slate.com/blogs/moneybox/2014/07/18/microsoft_cuts_18_000_jobs_it_s_the_fourth_biggest_tech_layoff_ever.html.

18. “Microsoft to Cut up to 18,000 Jobs,” Associated Press, July 17, 2014, https://www.politico.com/story/2014/07/microsoft-job-cuts-nokia-109035.

19. “Microsoft: Number of Employees 2010–2022,” Macrotrends, https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/MSFT/microsoft/number-of-employees.

20. “AT&T: Job Cuts to Nowhere,” Seeking Alpha, October 27, 2020, https://seekingalpha.com/article/4381550-t-job-cuts-to-nowhere.

21. “AT&T: Number of Employees 2010–2022,” Macrotends, https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/T/at-t/number-of-employees.

22. Kay Roger, “Layoffs in Tech Now a Permanent Feature,” Forbes, February 6, 2014, http://www.forbes.com/sites/rogerkay/2014/02/06/layoffs-in-tech-now-a-permanent-feature/.

23. Macy Bayern, “Engineers Dominate the List of Most In-Demand Tech Jobs in Silicon Valley,” Tech Republic, December 13, 2019, https://www.techrepublic.com/article/engineers-dominate-the-list-of-most-in-demand-tech-jobs-in-silicon-valley/.

24. Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York: Penguin, 2009), xii.

25. Statista Research Department, “Number of Full-Time Alphabet Employees from 2008 to 2016, by Department,” Statista, July 7, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/219333/number-of-google-employees-by-department/.

26. Brian L. Yoder, “Engineering by the Numbers,” American Society for Engineering Education, 2017, https://engineering.asu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/2017-Engineering-by-Numbers-Engineering-Statistics.pdf.

27. “Help Wanted: Google Hiring in 2011,” Google Blog, January 25, 2011, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2011/01/help-wanted-google-hiring-in-2011.html.

28. Mike Swift, “Google Dominates Web sector,” Mercury News, April 17, 2012, https://www.mercurynews.com/2012/04/17/google-dominates-web-sector/.

29. George Avalos, “Tech Jobs in Bay Area Surpass Dot-com Era's Peak,” Mercury News, August 24, 2016, http://www.mercurynews.com/2016/08/17/tech-jobs-in-bay-area-surpass-dot-com-eras-peak/.

30. Anaele Pelisson and Avery Hartmans, “The Average Age of Employees at All the Top Tech Companies, in One Chart,” Business Insider, September 17, 2017, https://www.businessinsider.com/median-tech-employee-age-chart-2017–8.

31. Madeline Wells, “Here's How Much Silicon Valley Tech Workers Actually Make,” SF Gate, June 27, 2019, https://www.sfgate.com/technology/article/Silicon-Valley-tech-workers-companies-salary-pay-14047115.php.

32. Rani Molla, “Facebook, Google and Netflix Pay a Higher Median Salary Than Exxon, Goldman Sachs or Verizon,” Recode, April 30, 2018, https://www.recode.net/2018/4/30/17301264/how-much-twitter-google-amazon-highest-paying-salary-tech.

33. “Rankings of the States 2016 and Estimates of School Statistics,” National Education Association, May 2017, http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/2017_Rankings_and_Estimates_Report-FINAL-SECURED.pdf.

34. Michael Hansen, “Which States Might Experience the Next Wave of Teacher Strikes?” Brookings Institute, April 13, 20118, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2018/04/13/which-states-might-experience-the-next-wave-of-teacher-strikes/.

35. This number is even more complicated because the NSF expanded its definition of the STEM workforce to include such occupations as healthcare, construction trades, installation, maintenance and repair, and production. See 2019 Science and Engineering Indicators, https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20212#:~:text=By%20including%20workers%20of%20all,total%20U.S.%20workforce%20in%202019.

36. Marcus Wohlsen, “Silicon Valley Creating Jobs, but not for Everyone,” Wired, August 3, 2012, http://www.wired.com/business/2012/08/silicon-valley-createsjobs-but-not-for-everyone/.

37. Dara Kerr, “Reddit's Visitors Skyrocket in 2012 with 37 billion Page Views, CNET, December 31, 2012, https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/reddits-visitors-skyrocket-in-2012-with-37-billion-page-views/.

38. Walter Chen, “4 Secrets to Silicon Valley's Productivity,” Business Insider, June 1, 2012, http://www.businessinsider.com/4-secrets-to-silicon-valleys-productivity-2012-6.

39. Joint Venture Silicon Valley, “2020 Silicon Valley Index,” San Jose, California, https://jointventure.org/download-the-2020-index.

40. Ibid.

41. Eduardo Porter, “Tech Is Splitting the U.S. Work Force in Two,” New York Times, February 4, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/04/business/economy/productivity-inequality-wages.html.

42. Muzaffar Chishti, Sarah Pierce, and Jessica Bolter, “The Obama Record on Deportations: Deporter in Chief or Not?,” Migration Policy Institute, January 26, 2017, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/obama-record-deportations-deporter-chief-or-not.

43. US Citizenship and Immigration Service, H-1B Fiscal Year (FY) 2015 Cap Season, http://www.uscis.gov/working-united-states/temporary-workers/h-1b-specialty-occupations-and-fashion-models/h-1b-fiscal-year-fy-2015-cap-season.

44. Kiran Dhillon, “How Google, Facebook and Others Pay Their H-1B Employees,” Tech Crunch, March 29, 2015, https://techcrunch.com/2015/03/29/how-google-facebook-and-others-pay-their-h-1b-employees/.

45. Daniel Costa and Ron Hira, “Major U.S. Firms—Not Just Outsourcing Companies—Pay Low Wages to Their H-1B Employees,” Economic Policy Institute, May 4, 2020, https://www.epi.org/publication/h-1b-visas-and-prevailing-wage-levels/#major-us-firms.

46. “What U.S. Immigration Policies Mean to Google,” Google Blog, June 6, 2007, https://googleblog.blogspot.com/2007/06/what-us-immigration-policies-mean-to.html.

47. Brendan Sasso, “Microsoft: Shortage of Tech Workers in the US Becoming ‘Genuine Crisis,’” Hill, September 27, 2012, http://thehill.com/blogs/hillicon-valley/technology/258985-microsoft-lack-of-tech-workers-approaching-genuine-crisis.

48. Ibid.

49. House Committee on Science and Technology, Competitiveness and Innovation on the Committee's 50th Anniversary, with Bill Gates, Chairman of Microsoft: Hearing Before the Committee on Science and Technology, House of Representatives, 110th Cong., 2nd sess., March 12, 2008, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-110hhrg41066/pdf/CHRG-110hhrg41066.pdf.

50. Rani Molla, “Visa Approvals for Tech Workers Are on the Decline. That Won't Just Hurt Silicon Valley,” Vox, February 28, 2019, https://www.vox.com/2019/2/28/18241522/trump-h1b-tech-work-jobs-overseas.

51. Adam Chandler, “Silicon Valley's Biggest Companies Denounce the Immigration Ban in Court,” Atlantic, February 2, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/02/silicon-valley-immigration-ban/515802/.

52. Bethany Allen-Ebrahimian, “Former Google CEO and Others Call for U.S.-China Tech ‘Bifurcation,’” Axios, January 26, 2021, https://www.axios.com/2021/01/26/scoop-former-google-ceo-and-others-call-for-us-china-tech-bifurcation.

53. China Strategy Group, “Asymmetric Competition: A Strategy for China and Technology,” Fall 2020, https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/20463382/final-memo-china-strategy-group-axios-1.pdf.

54. See US Government Accountability Office, H-1 Visa Program, Reforms Are Needed to Minimize the Risks and Costs of Current Program, GAO-11–26, January 2011, table 1, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d1126.pdf, p. 12; Dhillon, “How Google, Facebook and Others Pay.”

55. Costa and Hira, “H-1B Employees.”

56. Biao Xiang, Global Body Shopping (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 6.

57. Ibid.

58. Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital, 58.

59. Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Google's Shadow Work Force: Temps Who Outnumber Full-Time Employees,” New York Times, May 28, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/28/technology/google-temp-workers.html.

60. Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Google Rescinds Offers to Thousands of Contract Workers,” New York Times, May 20, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/29/technology/google-rescinds-job-offers-to-contract-workers.html.

61. Wakabayashi, “Google's Shadow Work Force.”

62. David Harvey, Seventeen Contradictions and the End of Capitalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 119–120.

63. Miranda Miller, “How Google Uses Human Raters in Organic Search,” Search Engine Watch, March 2, 2012, http://searchenginewatch.com/article/2172154/How-Google-Uses-Human-Raters-in-Organic-Search.

64. “General Guidelines,” Google, October 19, 2021, https://static.googleusercontent.com/media/guidelines.raterhub.com/en//searchqualityevaluatorguidelines.pdf.

65. “Improving Search with Rigorous Testing,” Google Search, https://www.google.com/search/howsearchworks/how-search-works/rigorous-testing/.

66. Matt McGee, “An Interview with a Google Search Quality Rater,” Search Engine Land, January 20, 2012, http://searchengineland.com/interview-google-search-quality-rater-108702.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. “Working at Home for Lionbridge—Non-Phone Work,” Earn Money Online, June 13, 2013, http://realwaystoearnmoneyonline.com/2013/06/working-at-home-for-lionbridge-non-phone-work.html.

70. Barry Schwartz, “Google Has Search Quality Raters in Tons of Countries,” Search Engine Roundtable, January 16, 2017, https://www.seroundtable.com/google-has-search-quality-raters-globally-23260.html.

71. Mary L. Gray and Siddharth Suri, Ghost Work: How to Stop Silicon Valley from Building a New Global Underclass (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2019).

72. Tarleton Gillespie, Custodians of the Internet: Platforms, Content Moderation, and the Hidden Decisions That Shape Social Media (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018).

73. Ursula Huws, “Logged Labour: A New Paradigm of Work Organisation?,” Work Organisation, Labour and Globalisation 10, no. 1 (2016): 7–26, doi:10.13169/workorgalaboglob.10.1.0007.

74. David Harvey, “Neoliberalism Is a Political Project,” Jacobin, July 23, 2016, https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/07/david-harvey-neoliberalism-capitalism-labor-crisis-resistance/.

75. Kim Moody, On New Terrain: How Capital Is Reshaping the Battleground of Class War (Chicago: Haymarket, 2017), 13–19.

76. Ibid. While many believe that the “just-in-time” model began in Japan, it was actually rooted in the United States. Starting in the 1950s Toyota employed justin-time manufacturing, borrowing the idea from the American supermarket supply system, to cope with financial distress and increase production without investing more capital. See Taiichi, Ohno, Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production (Cambridge, MA: Productivity, 1988).

77. Kathleen Barker and Kathleen Christensen, “Controversy and Challenges Raised by Contingent Work Arrangements,” in Contingent Work: American Employment Relations in Transition, ed. Kathleen Barker and Kathleen Christensen (Ithaca, NY: ILR, 1998), 1.

78. Annie Lowery, “Recovery Has Created Far More Low-Wage Jobs Than Better-Paid Ones,” New York Times, April 17, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/28/business/economy/recovery-has-created-far-more-low-wage-jobs-than-better-paid-ones.html.

79. Martha Ross and Nicole Bateman, “Meet the Low-Wage Workforce,” Brookings, November 7, 2019, https://www.brookings.edu/research/meet-the-low-wage-workforce/.

80. Ursula Huws, “Logged In,” Jacobin, January 6, 2016, https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/01/huws-sharing-economy-crowdsource-precarity-uber-workers.

81. “Amazon Lead Engineer Salary,” Comparably, https://www.comparably.com/companies/amazon/salaries/lead-engineer.

82. “Amazon CEO Jassy Says He Wants to Improve Warehouse Safety,” AP Press, April 14, 2022, https://apnews.com/article/technology-business-amazoncom-inc-jeff-bezos-labor-unions-955411f611617a63bf44180266e73392.

83. Michael Sainato, “‘I'm not a Robot’: Amazon Workers Condemn Unsafe, Grueling Conditions at Warehouse,” Guardian, February 5, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/feb/05/amazon-workers-protest-unsafe-grueling-conditions-warehouse.

84. Johan Moreno, “Google Follows a Growing Workplace Trend: Hiring More Contractors Than Employees,” Forbes, May 31, 2019, https://www.forbes.com/sites/johanmoreno/2019/05/31/google-follows-a-growing-workplace-trend-hiring-more-contractors-than-employees/#32c0a4d1447f.

85. Janet Nguyen, “The US Government Is Becoming More Dependent on Contract Workers,” Market Place, January 17, 2019, https://www.marketplace.org/2019/01/17/rise-federal-contractors/.

86. American Association of University Professors, Background Facts on Contingent Faculty Positions, https://www.aaup.org/issues/contingency/background-facts.

87. Paul Farhi, “At NPR, an Army of Temps Faces a Workplace of Anxiety and Insecurity,” Washington Post, December 9, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/at-npr-an-army-of-temps-resents-a-workplace-full-of-anxiety-and-insecurity/2018/12/07/32e49632-f35b-11e8–80d0-f7e1948d55f4_story.html.

88. R. Jamil Jonna and John Bellamy Foster, “Marx's Theory of Working-Class Precariousness,” Monthly Review, April 1, 2016, https://monthlyreview.org/2016/04/01/marxs-theory-of-working-class-precariousness/.

89. Other works on free labor debates include Nick Dyer-Witheford, Cyber-Marx: Cycles and Circuits of Struggle in High Technology Capitalism (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1999); Mark Andrejevic, “The Work of Being Watched: Interactive Media and the Exploitation of Self-Discourse,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 10, no. 2 (2002): 230–248; Trebor Scholz, “What the MySpace Generation Should Know About Working for Free,” Re-public, April 27, 2007, https://www.republic.gr/en/?p=138.

90. Christian Fuchs, “Dallas Smythe Today: The Audience Commodity, the Digital Labor Debate, Marxist Political Economy and Critical Theory; Prolegomena to a Digital Labor Theory of Value,” TripleC: Communication, Capitalism and Critique, 10, no. 2 (2012): 692–674.

91. Adam Arvidsson and Elanor Colleoni, “Value in Informational Capitalism and on the Internet,” Information Society 28, no. 3 (2012): 135–150.

92. Ursula Huws, Labor in the Global Digital Economy: The Cybertariat Comes of Age (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2014), 170–173.

93. Ibid., 171.

94. Robin Leidner, Fast Food, Fast Talk: Service Work and the Routinization of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

95. Lisa C. Tolbert, “The Aristocracy of the Market Basket: Self-Service Food Shopping in the New South,” in Food Chains: From Farmyard to Shopping Cart, ed. Warren James Belasco and Roger Horowitz (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 180–189.

96. Tracey Deutsch, Building a Housewife's Paradise: Gender, Politics, and American Grocery Stores in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 52.

97. Nona Glazer, “Servants to Capital: Unpaid Domestic Labor and Paid Work,” Review of Radical Political Economics 16, no. 1 (1984): 69.

98. Michael Palm, “Phoning It In: Self-Service, Telecommunications and New Consumer Labor” (PhD diss., University of North Carolina, 2010), 23.

99. Venus Green, Race on the Line: Gender, Labor, and Technology in the Bell System, 1880–1980 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001).

100. Christopher Lovelock and Robert Young, “Look to Consumers to Increase Productivity,” Harvard Business Review 57 (May–June 1979), http://hbr.org/1979/05/look-to-consumers-to-increase-productivity/ar/1.

101. Theodore Levitt, “Production-Line Approach to Service,” Harvard Business Review 50, no. 5 (September 1972): 20–31; Theodore Levitt, “The Industrialization of Service,” Harvard Business Review, 54, no. 5 (1976): 32–43.

102. Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 137.

103. Chris Oakes, “The Distributed Yahoo! ‘NewHoo,’” Wired, July 8, 1998, http://archive.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/1998/07/13625.

104. Karen Angel, Inside Yahoo! Reinvention and the Road Ahead (New York: Wiley, 2002), 142.

105. Chris Sherman, “Humans Do It Better Inside the Open Directory Project,” Online, June 2000, http://www.infotoday.com/online/OL2000/sherman7.html; Angel, Inside Yahoo!, 143; Craig Bricknell, “Netscape Acquires NewHoo,” Wired, November 18, 1998, https://www.wired.com/1998/11/netscape-acquires-newhoo/.

106. William Aspray and Paul E. Ceruzzi, The Internet and American Business (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008), 167.

107. Eric Mueller, “Mr. Bohnett Builds His Dream House,” Upside, December 1997, 44–8.

108. Ibid., 44.

109. “Yahoo! Buys GeoCities,” CNN, January 28,1999, http://money.cnn.com/1999/01/28/technology/yahoo_a/.

110. Elliot Zaret, “Volunteer Rebels Rock Web Community,” ZDnet, April 14, 1999, http://www.zdnet.com/news/volunteer-rebels-rock-Web-community/102083; See Hector Postigo, “America Online Volunteers Lessons from an Early Co-Production Community,” International Journal of Cultural Studies 12, no. 5 (2009): 419–431.

111. Michael Malone, “The Little People Vs. America Online,” Forbes, February 19, 2011, http://www.forbes.com/asap/2001/0219/060_print.html.

112. Eliot Zaret, “AOL Drops Hundreds of Teen Volunteers,” ZDnet, July 26, 1999, http://www.zdnet.com/news/aol-drops-hundreds-of-teen-volunteers/102876.

113. Malone, “Little People Vs. America Online.”

114. David Raymond, “True Value,” Forbes, February 19, 2001, http://www.forbes.com/asap/2001/0219/060s02.html.

115. Stefan Thomke and Eric von Hippel, “Customers as Innovators: A New Way to Create Value,” Harvard Business Review, April 2002, https://hbr.org/2002/04/customers-as-innovators-a-new-way-to-create-value/ar/1.

116. C. K. Prahalad and Venkatram Ramaswamy, The Future of Competition: Co-Creating Unique Value with Customers (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2004), 12.

117. Tim O'Reilly, “What Is Web 2.0? Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software,” O'Reilly, September 30, 2005, https://www.oreilly.com/pub/a/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html?page=1.

118. “Google SEO News: Google Algorithm Updates,” Search Engine Land, https://searchengineland.com/google-seo-news-google-algorithm-updates.

119. Matt Southern, “Google's Top Search Ranking Factors of 2016, According to Searchmetrics Study,” Search Engine Journal, December 13, 2016, https://www.searchenginejournal.com/googles-top-search-ranking-factors-2016-according-searchmetrics-study/181157/.

120. Laura Ceci, “Hours of Video Uploaded to YouTube Every Minute as of February 2020,” Statista, April 4, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/259477/hours-of-video-uploaded-to-youtube-every-minute/.

121. “YouTube,” Linkedin, https://www.linkedin.com/company/youtube/about/.

122. Chris O'Brien, “NYU Study: Facebook's Content Moderation Efforts Are ‘Grossly Inadequate,’” Venture Beat, June 7, 2020, https://venturebeat.com/2020/06/07/nyu-study-facebooks-content-moderation-efforts-are-grossly-inadequate/.

123. Elizabeth Dwoskin, Jeanne Whalen, and Regine Cabato, “Content Moderators at YouTube, Facebook and Twitter See the Worst of the Web—and Suffer Silently,” Washington Post, July 25, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/07/25/social-media-companies-are-outsourcing-their-dirty-work-philippines-generation-workers-is-paying-price/.

124. Ben Quinn, “YouTube Staff Too Swamped to Filter out All Terror-Related Content,” Guardian, January 28, 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jan/28/youtube-too-swamped-to-filter-terror-content.

125. Alex Moazed, “YouTube Decides It Doesn't Want to Be Netflix,” Inc., March 28, 2019, https://www.inc.com/alex-moazed/youtube-decides-it-doesnt-want-to-be-netflix.html.

126. “A Fresh Take on the Browser,” Google Official Blog, September 1, 2008, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2008/09/fresh-take-on-browser.html.

127. Jeff Jarvis, What Would Google Do? (New York: Collins Business, 2009), 93.

128. “What Is the Product Experts Program?,” Google, https://support.google.com/communities/answer/9138806?hl=en.

129. “Google Help Communities Overview,” Google, https://support.google.com/communities/answer/7424249?hl=en&ref_topic=7570485.

130. At the risk of overgeneralizing or oversimplifying, considering the complexity of figuring out what exactly is “unpaid” labor and what is “exchange” for use of Google's various services, one could perform a rough calculation to at least begin to conceptualize how Google's profit making could be impacted if it had to pay for its unpaid labor. Americans alone spend over fifty-seven billion hours per year on Google search (Chandra Steele, “Americans Spend Nearly 60 Billion Hours a Year on Google,” PC Magazine, July 28, 2021, https://www.pcmag.com/news/americans-spend-nearly-60-billion-hours-a-year-on-google). Even if only 5 percent of those hours were unpaid labor, if one assumes a wage of $10 per hour, this labor would cost Google $5.7 billion per year. This would erode Google's net profit by perhaps 10 percent per year. If one were to add all of Google's various services—YouTube, Google Maps, Google Translate—this number would be much higher.

131. Joseph Johnson, “Annual Revenue of Alphabet from 2011 to 2021,” Statista, February 7, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/507742/alphabet-annual-global-revenue/.

Chapter 4. Digital Welfare Capitalism

1. Terina Allen, “Google to Employees: Work from Home for at Least 12 More Months,” Forbes, July 27, 2020, https://www.forbes.com/sites/terinaallen/2020/07/27/google-to-employees-work-from-home-for-at-least-12-more-months/?sh=31c6073a47e5.

2. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Norton, 1967).

3. Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic Books, 1973); Alvin Toffler, The Third Wave (New York: Morrow, 1980).

4. Michael Piore and Charles Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Larry Hirschhorn, Beyond Mechanization (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); Shoshana Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988).

5. Gideon Kunda, Engineering Culture Control and Commitment in a High-Tech Corporation (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992).

6. Luc Boltanski and Eve Chiapello, “The New Spirit of Capitalism,” International Journal of Politics, and Society 18, nos. 3–4 (2005): 161–188.

7. “Google's ‘20 Percent Time’ in Action,” Google Official Blog, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2006/05/googles-20-percent-time-in-action.html.

8. Jillian D'Onfro, “The Truth About Google's Famous ‘20% time’ policy,” Business Insider, April 17, 2015, https://www.businessinsider.com/google-20-percent-time-policy-2015–4.

9. Matthew Panzrino, “Apple Fires up Its Version of Google's ‘20 percent time,’ Giving Some Employees 2 Weeks for Special Projects,” The Next Web, November 12, 2012, http://thenextWeb.com/apple/2012/11/12/apple-fires-up-its-version-of-googles-20-time-giving-some-employees-2-weeks-for-special-projects/.

10. Chris Weller, “What You Need to Know About Egg-Freezing, the Hot New Perk at Google, Apple, and Facebook,” Business Insider, September 17, 2017, https://www.businessinsider.com/egg-freezing-at-facebook-apple-google-hot-new-perk-2017–9.

11. Daniel Gross, “Goodbye, Pension. Goodbye, Health Insurance. Goodbye, Vacations,” Slate, September 23, 2004, http://www.slate.com/articles/business/moneybox/2004/09/goodbye_pension_goodbye_health_insurance_goodbye_vacations.html.

12. James Green, Death in the Haymarket: A Story of Chicago, the First Labor Movement, and the Bombing That Divided Gilded Age America (New York: Anchor, 2007).

13. Ahmed White, The Last Great Strike: Little Steel, the CIO, and the Struggle for Labor Rights in New Deal America (Oakland: University of California Press, 2016).

14. Stuart Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880–1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 1.

15. Some important works on the early years of welfare capitalism include Irving Bernstein, The Lean Years: A History of the American Worker, 1920–1933 (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2010); Stephen Meyer, The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908–1921 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981); Gerald Zahavi, Workers, Managers, and Welfare Capitalism: The Shoe Workers and Tanners of Endicott Johnson, 1890–1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Pres, 1988); Sanford Jacoby, Modern Manors: Welfare Capitalism Since the New Deal (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997); Nikki Mandell, The Corporation as Family: The Gendering of Corporate Welfare, 1890–1930 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).

16. Andrea Tone, The Business of Benevolence: Industrial Paternalism in Progressive America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 7.

17. Bruce Kaufman, Managing the Human Factor: The Early Years of Human Resource Management in American Industry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008), 69.

18. Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers: Origins of the Twentieth-Century Factory System in the United States, 1880–1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995), 11–17.

19. Kaufman, Managing the Human Factor, 115.

20. Tone, Business of Benevolence, 11–12.

21. Nelson, Managers and Workers, 112–118.

22. Tone, Business of Benevolence, 53–55.

23. Krissy Clark, “America's Forgotten Forerunner to Silicon Valley,” BBC, March 20, 2015, https://www.bbc.com/news/business-31989802.

24. Sanford Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in the 20th Century (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2004), 46–48.

25. Please see additional private and government surveys of welfare firms in the early twentieth century in Tone, Business of Benevolence, 44–45.

26. Elizabeth Lewis Otey, “Employers’ Welfare Work,” Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics 123 (May 15, 1913), 41–43.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid.

29. Zahavi, Welfare Capitalism, 1492–1493.

30. Gerald Zahavi, “Welfare Capitalism” in Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History ed. Eric Arneson (London:: Routledge, 2007) 1:1492.

31. Kaufman, Managing the Human Factor, 79–80.

32. Melvyn Dubofsky, The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Business, Labor, and Economic History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 390.

33. Ibid.

34. David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865–1925 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 236.

35. Robert Zieger, Timothy Minchin, and Gilbert Gall, American Workers, American Unions: The Twentieth and Early Twenty-First Centuries (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014), 11.

36. Meyer, Five Dollar Day, 109–111.

37. Ibid.

38. Greg Grandin, Fordlandia: The Rise and Fall of Henry Ford's Forgotten Jungle City (New York: Picador, 2010), 38.

39. Meyer, Five Dollar Day, 96.

40. Richard Gillespie, Manufacturing Knowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 18–19.

41. Please see chapter 5 in Kaufman, Managing the Human Factor for the evolution of the relationship between welfare capitalism and human resource management.

42. Gillespie, Manufacturing Knowledge, 36.

43. Ibid., 54–55.

44. Ibid, 2.

45. Ibid., 96.

46. Sean Dennis Cashman, America Ascendant: From Theodore Roosevelt to FDR in the Century of American Power, 1901–1945 (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 237.

47. Ibid.

48. Gerald Zahavi, “Welfare Capitalism,” in Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History, ed. Eric Arneson (London: Routledge, 2007), 1:1493.

49. Paul Bernstein, American Work Values: Their Origin and Development (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997), 195; Bernstein, The Lean Years, 88.

50. Jerold S. Auerbach, Labor and Liberty: The La Follette Committee and the New Deal (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966).

51. David Brody, “The Rise and Decline of Welfare Capitalism,” in Workers in Industrial America, ed. David Brody (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 48–81; Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

52. Jacoby, Modern Manors, 31.

53. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 267.

54. Jacoby, Modern Manors, 34.

55. Ibid., 5.

56. David Bacon, “Social Justice Unions Claim Deep Roots in Silicon Valley,” Reimagine, https://www.reimaginerpe.org/20–2/bacon-Valley-union-history.

57. Luc Boltanski and Eve Chiapello, The New Spirit of Capitalism (London: Verso, 2005), 14.

58. Ibid., 64.

59. Ibid., 76.

60. “Ten things we know to be true,” Google, https://about.google/philosophy/.

61. Richard Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 150.

62. Mandell, Corporation as Family, 23.

63. Stephanie Vozza, “Why Employees at Apple and Google Are More Productive,” Fast Company, March 13, 2017, https://www.fastcompany.com/3068771/how-employees-at-apple-and-google-are-more-productive.

64. Susan Gargoyle, “How Employee Freedom Delivers Better Business,” CNN, September 21, 2011, http://edition.cnn.com/2011/09/19/business/gargiulo-google-workplace-empowerment/.

65. Sara Kehaulani Goo, “At Google, Hours Are Long, But the Consommé Is Free,” Washington Post, January 24, 2007, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/23/AR2007012300334.html.

66. Juju Chan and Mary Marsh, “The Google Diet: Search Giant Overhauled Its Eating Options to ‘Nudge’ Healthy Choices,” ABC News, http://abcnews.go.com/Health/google-diet-search-giant-overhauled-eating-options-nudge/story?id=18241908#.UUwJkRn1dyU.

67. Mandell, Corporation as Family, 23.

68. Joe Mont, “Here's the Real Reason Your Employer Loves Giving Perks,” Business Insider, August 31, 2011, https://www.businessinsider.com.au/turns-out-employers-have-an-alternative-motive-for-providing-luxury-perks-2011–8.

69. James Manyika, “Google's View on the Future of Business: An Interview with CEO Eric Schmidt,” McKinsey Quarterly, November 2008, 5.

70. Mike Swift, “Google's Growth Online Reflected by Expansion in Mountain View,” San Jose Mercury News, November 21, 2010, https://web.archive.org/web/20150115181958/http://seattletimes.com/html/businesstechnology/2013485338_googlerealestate22.html.

71. Sarah Amelar, “Google Re-Envisions the Workplace at Its New Bay View Campus,” Architectural Record, July 6, 2022, https://www.architecturalrecord.com/articles/15660-google-re-envisions-the-workplace-at-its-new-bay-view-campus.

72. Swift, “Google's Growth Online.”

73. “A Vision for Housing and Community in East Whisman,” Google, https://realestate.withgoogle.com/middlefieldpark/.

74. Kevin Forestieri, “Google's North Bayshore Megaproject Could Take 30 Years to Build,” Mountain View Voice, November 23m 2021, https://www.mv-voice.com/news/2021/11/23/googles-north-bayshore-megaproject-could-take-30-years-to-build.

75. “A Neighborhood Vision for North Bayshore,” Google, https://realestate.withgoogle.com/northbayshore/.

76. “Open Sourcing Google's HR Secrets,” Knowledge@Wharton, February 26, 2016, http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/open-sourcing-googles-hr-secrets/.

77. Ciara Bryne, “People Analytics: How Google Does HR by the Numbers,” Venture Beat, September 20, 2011, http://venturebeat.com/2011/09/20/people-analytics-google-hr/.

78. Jennifer Kurkoski, “Hello Science—Meet HR,” Google Research Blog, http://googleresearch.blogspot.com/2012/06/hello-sciencemeet-hr.html.

79. James Stewart, “Looking for a Lesson in Google's Perks,” New York Times, March 15, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/16/business/at-google-a-place-to-work-and-play.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.

80. Teresa Amabile and Steven Kramer, “Employee Happiness Matters More Than You Think,” Bloomberg Business News, February 22, 2012, http://www.businessweek.com/debateroom/archives/2012/02/employee_happiness_matters_more_than_you_think.html.

81. Farhad Manjoo, “The Happiness Machine,” Slate, January 21, 2013, http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/2013/01/google_people_operations_the_secrets_of_the_world_s_most_scientific_human.single.html.

82. Ibid.

83. Steven Henn, “‘Serendipitous Interaction’ Key to Tech Firms’ Workplace Design,” All Tech Considered, March 13, 2013, http://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2013/03/13/174195695/serendipitous-interaction-key-to-tech-firms-workplace-design.

84. The term Google by design plays with David Noble's book American by Design (New York: Knopf, 1979), in which he documents the rise of science-based industry in the United States and how science and the engineering profession were subjugated by capital.

85. Cliff Kuang, “In the Cafeteria, Google Gets Healthy,” Fast Company, March 19, 2012, http://www.fastcompany.com/1822516/cafeteria-google-gets-healthy.

84. Ibid.; Ceilia Kang, “Google Crunches Data on Munching in Office,” Washington Post, September 1, 2003, https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/google-crunches-data-on-munching-in-office/2013/09/01/3902b444–0e83-11e3-85b6-d27422650fd5_story.html.

85. John Blackstone, “Inside Google Workplaces, from Perks to Nap Pods,” CBS News, January 22, 2013, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/inside-google-workplaces-from-perks-to-nap-pods/.

86. Scott Morrison, “Google Searches for Staffing Answers,” Wall Street Journal, May 19, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124269038041932531.html.

87. Ibid.

88. David Garvin, “How Google Sold Its Engineers on Management,” Harvard Business Review, December 13, 2013, https://hbr.org/2013/12/how-google-sold-its-engineers-on-management.

89. Ibid.

90. Adam Bryant, “Google's Quest to Build a Better Boss,” New York Times, March 12, 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/13/business/13hire.html.

91. Joseph Walker, “School's in Session at Google,” Wall Street Journal, July 5, 2012, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702303410404577466852658514144.html.

92. Charles Duhigg, “What Google Learned from Its Quest to Build the Perfect Team,” New York Times, February 25, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/28/magazine/what-google-learned-from-its-quest-to-build-the-perfect-team.html.

93. Julia Rozovsky, “The Five Keys to a Successful Google Team,” re:Work, November 15, 2015, https://rework.withgoogle.com/blog/five-keys-to-a-successful-google-team/.

94. Tim Fernholz, “Inside Google's Culture of Relentless Self-Surveying,” Quartz, June 26, 2013, https://qz.com/97731/inside-googles-culture-of-relentless-self-surveying/.

95. Julia Carrie Wong and Mario Koran, “Google Contract Workers in Pittsburgh Vote to form Union,” Guardian, September 24, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/sep/24/google-contract-workers-in-pittsburgh-vote-to-form-union.

96. David Bacon, “Land of the Open Shop: The Long Struggle to Organize Silicon Valley,” New Labor Forum 20, no. 1 (February 2011): 73–80, https://doi.org/10.4179/NLF.201.0000011.

97. Shirin Ghaffary, “Google Employees Protest the Company's ‘Attempt to Silence Workers,’” Recode, November 22, 2019, https://www.vox.com/recode/2019/11/22/20978537/google-workers-suspension-employee-activists-protest.

98. Josh Eidelson and Mark Bergen, “Google Urged the US to Limit Protection for Activist Workers,” Bloomberg, January 24, 2019, https://hub.packtpub.com/google-is-secretly-urging-national-labor-relations-board-to-overturn-protection-for-activist-workers-bloomberg-reports/.

99. Shirin Ghaffary, “What Are You Legally Allowed to Say at Work? A Group of Fired Googlers Could Change the Rules,” Recode, June 11, 2021, https://www.vox.com/recode/22528599/google-workers-nlrb-complaint-paul-duke-rebecca-rivers-sophie-waldman-activism-free-speech.

100. Tim De Chant, “Google Hired Union-Busting Consultants to Convince Employees ‘Unions Suck,’” Ars Technica, January 11, 2020, https://arstechnica.com/techpolicy/2022/01/google-hired-union-busting-consultants-to-convince-employees-unions-suck/.

101. Ron Amadei, “Google's 80-Acre Megacampus Will Take over a Chunk of San Jose,” Ars Technica, May 27, 2021, https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2021/05/googles-san-jose-megacampus-will-be-a-mixed-use-neighborhood/.

102. Jacoby, Modern Manors, 262.

Chapter 5. Market Dynamics and Geopolitics

1. Dan Schiller, “Geopolitical-Economic Conflict and Network Infrastructures,” Chinese Journal of Communication 1, no. 1 (2011), 90–107.

2. See Daniel Headrick, The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Jill Hills, Telecommunications and Empire (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007); Dwayne Winseck and Robert Pike, Communication and Empire: Media, Markets, and Globalization, 1860–1930 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007).

3. Winseck and Pike, Communication and Empire, xvii.

4. Ellen Wood, “Kosovo and the New Imperialism,” Monthly Review, June 1, 1991, https://monthlyreview.org/1999/06/01/kosovo-and-the-new-imperialism/.

5. Ellen Wood, “Unhappy Families: Global Capitalism in a World of Nation-States,” Monthly Review, July 1, 1999, https://monthlyreview.org/1999/07/01/unhappy-families/.

6. Jonathan Reed Winkler, Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).

7. Schiller, “Geopolitical-Economic Conflict,” 93.

8. Simon Nora and Alain Minc, The Computerization of Society: A Report to the President of France (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1980).

9. Kaarle Nordenstreng, “The New World Information and Communication Order: An Idea That Refuses to Die,” in The International Encyclopedia of Media Studies, ed. John Nerone (Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 1:477–499.

10. Herbert Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (White Plains, NY: International Arts and Sciences Press, 1976).

11. Victor Pickard, “Neoliberal Visions and Revisions in Global Communications Policy from NWICO to WSIS,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 31, no. 2 (April 2007): 118–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0196859906298162.

12. “Tunis Agenda for the Information Society,” WSIS World Summit on the Information Society, November 18, 2005, https://www.itu.int/net/wsis/docs2/tunis/off/6rev1.html.

13. Paula Chakravartty, “Who Speaks for the Governed? World Summit on Information Society, Civil Society and the Limits of ‘Multistakeholderism,’” Economic and Political Weekly 41, no. 3 (2006): 250–257.

14. Dan Schiller, Digital Depression: Information Technology and Economic Crisis (Urbana: University of Illinois Press), 188.

15. J. P. Singh, “Cultural Understandings and Contestations in the Global Governance of Information Technologies and Networks,” in Routledge Handbook of Science, Technology and Society, ed. Daniel Lee Kleinman and Kelly Moore (Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2014), 215.

16. The White House Office of the Press Secretary, “2011 Remarks by the President in State of Union Address,” January 25, 2011, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/01/25/remarks-president-state-union-address.

17. Yuezhi Zhao, Communication in China: Political Economy, Power, and Conflict (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008); Yu Hong, Labor, Class Formation, and China's Informationized Policy of Economic Development (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2011).

18. Hong, “China's Informationized Policy,” 31.

19. “Promotion of Information Infrastructure Urged,” People's Daily, July 27, 2002, http://china.org.cn/english/government/37832.htm.

20. Christopher Hughes and Gudrun Wacker, China and the Internet: Politics of the Digital Leap Forward (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003); Yu Zhou, The Inside Story of China's High-Tech Industry: Making Silicon Valley in Beijing (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008).

21. Min Tang, Tencent: The Political Economy of China's Surging Internet Giant (New York: Routledge, 2020), 60.

22. Zixiang Tan, William Foster, and Seymour Goodman, “China's State-Coordinated Internet Infrastructure,” Communications of the ACM 42, no. 6 (1999), 52.

23. Yu Hong, “Distinctive Characteristics of China's Path of ICT Development: A Critical Analysis of Chinese Developmental Strategies in Light of the Eastern Asian Model,” International Journal of Communication 2 (2008): 460–461.

24. China Telecom Newsletter, July 1995, 2.

25. Zhao, Communication in China, 152.

26. In the wake of its accession to the WTO in 2000, China established the regulatory framework for its telecommunication sectors and defined the categories of basic telecom service operators and value-added telecommunication services operating over the network such as email, Internet service providers, content providers, and online data processing. China purposefully relaxed its restrictions on foreign investment in value-added services such that foreign firms could take 50 percent ownership two years after WTO accession and 49 percent ownership for mobile and fixed-line services four and five years afterward, respectively.

27. Lutao Ning, “China's Leadership in the World ICT Industry a Successful Story of Its Attracting-In and Walking-Out Strategy? China's Outward and Inward Foreign Direct Investment Policies,” Pacific Affairs 82, no. 1 (2009): 70.

28. Min Tang, “From ‘Bring-In’ to ‘Going Out’: Transnationalizing China's Internet Capital Through State Policies,” Chinese Journal of Communication 13, no. 1 (2019): 27–47.

29. Ibid.

30. Steven White, Jian Gao, and Wei Zang, “Financing New Ventures in China: System Antecedents and Institutionalization,” Research Policy 34, no. 6 (2005): 849–913.

31. Ibid., 901.

32. Ibid., 906.

33. Joy Shaw and Lisa Chow, “China's VIE Structure May Hold Hidden Risk,” Financial Times, November 11, 2011, https://web.archive.org/web/20150708154942/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/0a1e4d78–0bf6–11e1–9310–00144feabdc0.html.

34. Kathrin Hille, “Foreign Internet Presence in China to Face Scrutiny,” Financial Times, September 1, 2011, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/7f8645e2-d493-11e0-a42b-00144feab49a.html.

35. Kevin Rosier, “The Risks of China's Internet Companies on U.S. Stock Exchanges,” U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, September 12, 2014, https://www.uscc.gov/research/risks-chinas-internet-companies-us-stock-exchanges-addendum-added-september-12-2014.

36. Charles Cover, “China Proposes to Change Status of Foreign Stakes in Tech Sector,” Financial Times, January 22, 2015, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/dc6b479a-a211-11e4-aba2-00144feab7de.html#axzz3hK9N4An3.

37. “Beijing Overhauls Rules on Companies Seeking an Overseas IPO, Including Banning Any Listing Deemed a National Security Threat,” Bloomberg, December 27, 2021, https://fortune.com/2021/12/27/china-overseas-ipo-rules-didi-vie-foreign-waiver/.

38. Zhao, Communication in China, 145.

39. David Barboza, “The Rise of Baidu,” New York Times, September 17, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/17/business/yourmoney/17baidu.html?pagewanted=all.

40. Ibid.

41. 2010 Report to Congress of the US China Economic and Security Review Commission, 100th Cong., 2nd sess. (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2010), 231, https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/annual_reports/2010-Report-to-Congress.pdf.

42. “Google Acquires Sizeable Stake in Baidu,” China Daily, June 16, 2004, http://www.china.org.cn/english/BAT/98325.htm.

43. Jennifer Pan, “How the Market for Social Media Shapes Strategies of Internet Censorship,” in Digital Media and Democratic Futures, ed. Michael X. Delli Carpini (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019), 218.

44. Robin Wauters, “Baidu Acquires Dominant Stake in Online Video Firm iQiyi, Buys out Ex-Hulu Investor Providence,” NextWeb, November 2, 2012, http://thenextWeb.com/asia/2012/11/02/baidu-acquires-majority-stake-in-online-video-firm-iqiyi-buys-out-ex-hulu-investor-providence/.

45. Matt Marshall, “Yahoo China to File Aggressive Suit against Qihoo Nemesis,” Venture Beat, November 2, 2006, http://venturebeat.com/2006/11/03/yahoo-china-hits-back-at-qihoo-nemesis/.

46. Ellyne Phneah, “Baidu Takes Qihoo 360 to Court over Search Dispute,” ZDNet, February 22, 2013, http://www.zdnet.com/cn/baidu-takes-qihoo-360-to-court-over-search-dispute-7000011649/.

47. Ibid.

48. Michael Kan, “China's Baidu and Qihoo 360 Sign Pact Meant to Resolve Dispute,” PC World, November 2, 2012, http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/article/440847/china_baidu_qihoo_360_sign_pact_meant_resolve_dispute.

49. Zhang Wenxian, Huiyao Wang, and Ilan Alon, Entrepreneurial and Business Elites of China: The Chinese Returnees Who Have Shaped Modern China (Bingley, UK: Emerald Group, 2011), 219.

50. Sarah Lacy, “What Valley Companies Should Know About Tencent,” Tech Crunch, June 20, 2010, http://techcrunch.com/2010/06/20/what-valley-companies-should-know-about-tencent/.

51. Gregg Sterling, “Alibaba Creates Aliyun Search Engine to Challenge Baidu, Google in China,” Search Engine Land, February 19, 2013, http://searchengineland.com/alibaba-creates-aliyun-search-engine-to-challenge-baidu-google-in-china-148992.

52. Josh Ong, “Alibaba's New Aliyun Search Engine Raises the Stakes in Its Feud with Google and Android,” NewWeb, February 19, 2013, http://thenextWeb.com/asia/2013/02/19/alibabas-new-aliyun-search-engine-raises-the-stakes-in-its-feud-with-google-and-android/.

53. “ByteDance Launches New Search Engine in China,” Reuters, August 12, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-bytedance/bytedance-launches-new-search-engine-in-china-idUSKCN1V20Z7.

54. Lianrui Jia and Dwayne Winseck, “The Political Economy of Chinese Internet Companies: Financialization, Concentration, and Capitalization,” International Communication Gazette 80, no. 1 (January 2018): 30–59.

55. Shanhong Liu, “Artificial Intelligence (AI) Market Revenues Worldwide in 2020 and Forecasts for 2021 and 2024,” Statista, April 22, 2021, https://www-statista-com.stanford.idm.oclc.org/statistics/694638/worldwide-cognitive-and-artificial-intelligence-revenues/.

56. François Candelon, Michael G. Jacobides, Stefano Brusoni, and Matthieu Gombeaud, “China's Business ‘Ecosystems’ Are Helping It Win the Global A.I. Race,” Fortune, July 2, 2021, https://fortune.com/2021/07/02/china-artificial-intelligence-ai-business-ecosystems-tencent-baidu-alibaba/.

57. “Baidu Leads China in Artificial Intelligence Patents, Is Poised to Bring About Intelligent Transformation,” PR Newswire, December 1, 2020, https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/baidu-leads-china-in-artificial-intelligence-patents-is-poised-to-bring-about-intelligent-transformation-301182591.html.

58. Yating Zhao, “Baidu's Lost Decade in International Markets,” Low Down, August 22, 2018, https://thelowdown.momentum.asia/baidus-lost-decade-in-international-markets/.

59. “Baidu Research Establishes an Advisory Board, Holds 1st Board Meeting in Silicon Valley,” Baidu Research, November 15, 2018, http://research.baidu.com/Blog/index-view?id=108.

60. Jane Lanhee Lee, Munsif Vengattil, “Baidu Gets California Nod for Testing Empty Self-Driving Cars,” Reuters, January 27, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-baidu-autonomous/baidu-gets-california-nod-for-testing-empty-self-driving-cars-idUSKBN29W2OT.

61. Sharon Gaudin, “Microsoft to Maintain China Operations, Report Says,” Computer World, March 5, 2010, http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9166738/Microsoft_to_maintain_China_operations_report_says.

62. David Pierson and David Sarno, “Bing Gets Foothold in China Market,” Los Angeles Times, July 6, 2011, http://articles.latimes.com/2011/jul/06/business/la-fi-microsoft-baidu-20110706.

63. David Kirkpatrick, “Gates in China,” Fortune, July 17, 2007, https://archive.fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2007/07/23/100134488/.

64. “Microsoft Warns US Crackdown on China's Huawei Could Backfire,” Sputnik International, May 28, 2019, https://sputniknews.com/business/201905281075407312-microsoft-us-china-huawei/.

65. Susan Li and Brian Womack, “Google China Business Grows, ‘Continues to Thrive,’ Alegre Says,” Bloomberg, January 23, 2014, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-24/google-china-business-grows-continues-to-thrive-alegre-says.html.

66. “A New Approach to China: An Update,” Google Blog, March 22, 2010, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/03/new-approach-to-china-update.html.

67. Li Yuan and Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Google, Seeking a Return to China, Is Said to Be Building a Censored Search Engine,” New York Times, August 1, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/01/technology/china-google-censored-search-engine.html.

68. Melanie Lee, “Analysis: A Year after China Retreat, Google Plots New Growth,” Reuters, January 13, 2011, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-google-china/analysis-a-year-after-china-retreat-google-plots-new-growth-idUSTRE70C1X820110113.

69. Mark Bergen, “Google CEO Sundar Pichai: ‘We Want to Be in China Serving Chinese Users,’” Recode, June 1, 2016, http://www.recode.net/2016/6/1/11830654/google-ceo-sundar-pichai-china.

70. “Google AdWords Experience Center Settles in Tianjin,” China Daily, October 17, 2017, https://govt.chinadaily.com.cn/s/201710/17/WS5b77fbaf498e855160e8a489/google-adwords-experience-center-settles-in-tianjin.html.

71. “Google Center to Aid Businesses,” Shanghai Daily, May 17, 2016, http://www.shanghaidaily.com/district/songjiang/Google-center-to-aid-businesses/shdaily.shtml.

72. Alistair Barr, “Some Alphabet Units May Return to China Ahead of Others, Brin Says,” Wall Street Journal, October 29, 2015, http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2015/10/29/some-google-units-may-return-to-china-ahead-of-others-brin-says/.

73. Ryan Gallagher, “Google's Censored Search Would Help China ‘Be More Open,’ Said Ex-CEO Eric Schmidt,” Intercept, May 14, 2019, https://theintercept.com/2019/05/14/google-search-china-eric-schmidt-comments/.

74. Yuezhi Zhao, “China's Pursuits of Indigenous Innovations in Information Technology Developments: Hopes, Follies and Uncertainties,” Chinese Journal of Communication 3, no. 3 (2010): 266–289.

75. Gorden Lubold and Alex Leary, “Biden Expands Blacklist of Chinese Companies Banned from U.S. Investment,” Wall Street Journal, June 2, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/biden-expands-blacklist-of-chinese-companies-banned-from-u-s-investment-11622741711.

76. Ming Tang, “Not Yet the End of Transnational Digital Capitalism: A Communication Perspective of the U.S.–China Decoupling Rhetoric,” International Journal of Communication 16 (2022): 1506–1531.

77. “Understanding U.S.–China Decoupling: Macro Trends and Industry Impacts,” U.S. Chamber of Commerce, February 17, 2021, https://www.uschamber.com/report/understanding-us-china-decoupling-macro-trends-and-industry-impacts.

78. “Yellen Says U.S. May Decouple to Some Extent from China to Protect Security,” Reuters, June 16, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/us/yellen-says-us-may-decouple-some-extent-china-protect-security-2021–06–16/.

79. “Asymmetric Competition: A Strategy for China and Technology,” China Strategy Group, Fall 2020, https://archive.org/details/final-memo-china-strategy-group-axios-1.

80. “Emerging Technologies and Defense: Getting the Fundamentals Right,” Before the Senate Committee on Armed Services, 117 Cong., February 23, 2021 (Dr. Eric E. Schmidt, Co-Founder, Schmidt Futures and Chair, National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence), https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Schmidt_02–23–21.pdf.

81. Nathaniel Taplin, “China's Tech Crackdown Could Backfire Badly,” Financial Times, July 30, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-tech-crackdown-could-backfire-badly-11627627273/.

82. “Trivium China Kendra Schaefer on China's Tech Crackdown,” Bloomberg, July 12, 2021, https://finance.yahoo.com/video/trivium-china-kendra-schaefer-chinas-035412197.html.

83. Greg Ip, “China Wants Manufacturing—Not the Internet—to Lead the Economy,” Washington Post, August 21, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-wants-manufacturingnot-the-internetto-lead-the-economy-11628078155.

84. European Newspaper Publisher's Association, “Joint Industry Letter Against Google's Self-Preferencing,” November 12, 2020, https://www.enpa.eu/policy-issues/joint-industry-letter-against-googles-self-preferencing.

85. “Attack of the Eurogoogle,” Economist, March 9, 2006, http://www.economist.com/node/5571496.

86. Ibid.

87. Kevin O'Brien and Thomas Crampton, “Germany Quits Search Engine Project—Business—International Herald Tribune,” New York Times, January 2, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/02/business/worldbusiness/02iht-search.4081237.html?_r=1&.

88. Ibid.

89. Ibid.

90. Ibid.

91. Ibid.

92. Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (Germany), “The Theseus Research Program: New Technology for the Internet of Services,” November 11, 2008, https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Publikationen/theseus-research-program.pdf?blob=PublicationFile&v=1.

93. Mathis Winker, “Germany Pulls away from Quaero Search-Engine Project,” Deutche Welle, December 21, 2006, http://www.dw.de/germany-pulls-away-from-quaero-search-engine-project/a-2287489.

94. Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (Germany), “The Theseus Research Program: New Technology for the Internet of Services,” September 2011, https://www.digitale-technologien.de/DT/Redaktion/EN/Downloads/Publikation/theseus-forschungsprogramm-broschuere-en.pdf?blob=PublicationFile&v=2.

95. “Germany to Fund Rival to Google Search Engine,” Deutsche Welle, July 20, 2007, http://www.dw.de/germany-to-fund-rival-to-google-search-engine/a-2698176.

96. Jean-Noël Jeanneney, Google and the Myth of Universal Knowledge: A View from Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008).

97. European Commission, “Commission Launches Five-Year Strategy to Boost the Digital Economy,” European Union Press Release, June 1, 2005, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-05–643_en.htm?locale=en.

98. Ibid.

99. Roland Parry, “France Accepts Google Role in Book Scanning,” Agence France Presse, January 20, 2010, https://web.archive.org/web/20130426074722/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gZPe-DbjkDNnuBOdOLWMQIt5vHSw.

100. Henry Samuel, “Nicolas Sarkozy Fights Google over Classic Books,” Telegraph, December 14, 2009, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/6811462/Sarkozy-fights-Google-over-classic-books.html.

101. Sophie Hardach, “France's Sarkozy Takes on Google in Books Dispute,” Globe and Mail (Toronto), 2012, August 23, 2012, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/technology/frances-sarkozy-takes-on-google-in-books-dispute/article4295693/?service=mobile.

102. Samuel, “Nicolas Sarkozy Fights Google.”

103. Lance Whitney, “France Planning Google Books Rival,” CNET, January 13, 2010, http://www.cnet.com/news/france-planning-google-books-rival/.

104. “Googlisation of France,” Unclassified US Cable, US Embassy, Paris, France, December 18, 2009, WikiLeaks Public Library of US Diplomacy, http://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09PARIS1729_a.html.

105. Scott Sayare, “France to Digitize Its Own Literary Works,” New York Times, December 14, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/15/world/europe/15france.html.

106. “Googlisation of France.”

107. Jenny Barchfield, “France Plans Its Own Rival to Google Books,” Boston.com, January 12, 2010, http://www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2010/01/12/france_plans_its_own_rival_to_google_books/.

108. Ben Hall, “Paris Threatens Google Over Book-Scanning,” Financial Times, January 13, 2010, https://www.ft.com/content/4ef6dc08-ffaa-11de-921f-00144feabdc0.

109. “Google Book Scanning: Cultural Theft or Freedom of Information?,” CNN World, February 8, 2020, http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/02/08/google.livres.france/.

110. Primavera De Filippi, “Communia Condemns the Privatization of the Public Domain by the Bibliothèque Nationale de France,” Communia, January 21, 2013, https://www.communia-association.org/2013/01/21/no-to-the-privatization-of-the-public-domain-by-the-bibliotheque-nationale-de-france/.

111. Dan Schiller and ShinJoung Yeo, “Powered by Google: Widening Access and Tightening Corporate Control,” Leonardo Electronic Almanac 20, no. 1 (2014), http://www.leoalmanac.org/vol-20-no-1-red-art/.

112. Gregg Keizer, “Microsoft Not Fooling Anyone by Using FairSearch Front in Antitrust Complaint against Google,” Computer World, April 9, 2013, http://www.computerworld.com/article/2496436/technology-law-regulation/microsoft-not-fooling-anyone-by-using-fairsearch-front-in-antitrust-compla.html.

113. Matt Rosoft, “US Firms Lead EU Lobbying League,” Business Insider, September 1, 2015, http://www.businessinsider.com.au/european-lobbying-spend-by-american-tech-companies-2015–8.

114. Ibid.

115. Richard Waters and Nikki Tait, “Microsoft in Spotlight over Google Case,” Financial Times, March 4, 2010, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/ad1c2094-27bf-11df-863d-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3GcufcYWl.

116. Bill Rigby and Foo Yun Chee, “Microsoft Files EU Competition Complaint vs. Google,” Reuters, March 31, 2011, https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-56015620110331.

117. John Ribeiro, “EU Tells Google to Make More Concessions or Face Charges in Antitrust Dispute,” PC World, September 23, 2014, http://www.pcworld.com/article/2687212/eu-tells-google-to-make-more-concessions-or-face-charges-in-antitrust-dispute.html.

118. “FairSearch: ‘It Would Be Better to Do Nothing Than to Accept Google's Proposals’ to the European Commission,” Fair Search, June 23, 2015, https://fairsearch.org/it-would-be-better-to-do-nothing-than-to-accept-googles-proposals-to-the-european-commission/.

119. Jeevan Vasagar, “The News Baron Battling Google,” Financial Times, June 9, 2014, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/beb7aeae-eb3d-11e3-bab6–00144feabdc0.html#axzz3BLT1fsMn.

120. Loek Essers, “Publishers Urge European Commission to Reject Google Antitrust Deal,” PC World, September 4, 2014, http://www.pcworld.com/article/2602600/publishers-urge-european-commission-to-reject-google-antitrust-deal.html.

121. Alex Barker, James Fontanella-Khan, and Jeevan Vasagar, “Google Feels Political Wind Shift Against It in Europe,” Financial Times, March 21, 2014, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/7848572e-e0c1–11e3-a934–00144feabdc0.html#axzz3Aic8kphy.

122. Jeevan Vasagar, Richard Waters, and James Fontanella-Khan, “Europe Strikes Back,” Financial Times, September 15, 2014, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/37e363c2-3cc9-11e4-871d-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3GFQYly7h.

123. Dominic Rushe, “Yahoo $250,000 Daily Fine over NSA Data Refusal Was Set to Double Every Week,” Guardian, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/11/yahoo-nsa-lawsuit-documents-fine-user-data-refusal.

124. Claire Miller, “Revelations of N.S.A. Spying Cost US Tech Companies,” New York Times, March 21, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/22/business/fallout-from-snowden-hurting-bottom-line-of-tech-companies.html?_r=0.

125. James Fontanella-Khan, “Microsoft to Shield Foreign Users’ Data,” Financial Times, January 22, 2014, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/e14ddf70–8390–11e3aa65–00144feab7de.html?siteedition=intl#ixzz2r9yJN1Qz.

126. Peter Judge, “Microsoft Puts Deutsche Telekom in Charge of German Data,” Data Center Dynamics, November 25, 2015, http://www.datacenterdynamics.com/content-tracks/colo-cloud/microsoft-puts-deutsche-telekom-in-charge-of-german-data/95200.fullarticle.

127. Foo Yun Chee, “EU Antitrust Regulators open Third Front Against Google,” Reuters, July 15, 2016, http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-eu-google-antitrust-idUKKCN0ZU0YQ; Aleksandra Eriksson, “EU Files New Antitrust Case Against Google,” EU Observer, July 14, 2016, https://euobserver.com/economic/134361.

128. Mark Bergen, “Microsoft Quietly Retreats from FairSearch, Watchdog Behind Google Antitrust Cases,” Vox, January 22, 2016, https://www.vox.com/2016/1/22/11588992/microsoft-quietly-retreats-from-fairsearch-watchdog-behind-google.

129. Ibid.

130. Javier Espinoza and Sam Fleming, “Margrethe Vestager Examines Curbs on non-EU State-Backed Companies,” Financial Times, December 16, 2019, https://www.ft.com/content/452d2c7a-1f0e-11ea-92da-f0c92e957a96.

131. “Annual Value of Completed M&A and Greenfield Investment Transactions from China in the EU-27 and UK from 2012 to 2021,” Statista, May 5, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1306532/china-completed-manda-and-greenfield-investment-in-europe/.

132. Ibid.

133. Agatha Kratz, Max J. Zenglein, and Gregor Sebastian, “Chinese FDI in Europe: 2020,” Merics Report, June 2021, https://merics.org/en/report/chinese-fdi-europe-2020-update#:~:text=China's%20FDI%20in%20Europe%20continued,to%20a%2010%2Dyear%20low.

134. Gwénaëlle Barzic, “Europe's 5G to Cost $62 Billion More if Chinese Vendors Banned: Telcos,” Reuters, June 7, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-huawei-europe-gsma/europes-5g-to-cost-62-billion-more-if-chinese-vendors-banned-telcos-idUSKCN1T80Y3.

135. Ben Hall, “EU Needs Common Telecoms Rules to Thwart Huawei's 5G Threat,” Financial Times, December 17, 2019, https://www.ft.com/content/9d95f576-20bd-11ea-92da-f0c92e957a96.

136. Stu Woo, “Beijing Shuns Ericsson, Nokia as the West Curbs Huawei,” Wall Street Journal, August 3, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/beijing-shuns-ericsson-nokia-as-the-west-curbs-huawei-11627982882.

137. Nick Wadhams, “Biden Putting Tech, Not Troops, at Core of U.S.-China Policy,” Bloomberg, March 1, 2021, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-03-01/biden-putting-tech-not-troops-at-center-of-u-s-china-strategy.

138. “EU Makes Tech Alliance Offer to Biden Administration,” Science Business, December 3, 2020, https://sciencebusiness.net/technology-strategy-board/news/eu-makes-tech-alliance-offer-biden-administration.

139. Madhumita Murgia, “Europe ‘a Global Trendsetter on Tech Regulation,’” Financial Times, October 30, 2019, https://www.ft.com/content/e7b22230-fa32–11e9-a354-36acbbb0d9b6.

140. Sven Becker, “Google's Lobby Offensive: Internet Giant Builds Web of Influence in Berlin,” Spiegel Online International, September 25, 2013, https://web.archive.org/web/20220619045630/https://www.spiegel.de/international/business/how-google-lobbies-german-government-over-internet-regulation-a-857654.html.

141. Ibid.

142. Javier Espinoza, “Internal Google Document Reveals Campaign Against EU Lawmakers,” Financial Times, October 28, 2020, https://www.ft.com/content/d9d05b1e-45c0-44b8-a1ba-3aa6d0561bed.

143. Raphaël Kergueno, Nicholas Aiossa, Lucinda Pearson, Nuri Syed Corser, Vitor Teixeira, and Michiel van Hulten, “Deep Pockets, Open Doors: Big Tech Lobbying in Brussels,” Transparency International (2021), https://transparency.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Deep_pockets_open_doors_report.pdf.

144. Ibid.

145. Adam Satariano and Matina Stevis-Gridneff, “Big Tech Turns Its Lobbyists Loose on Europe, Alarming Regulators,” New York Times, December 14, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/14/technology/big-tech-lobbying-europe.html.

146. Mehreen Khan, “EU Floats Plan for €100bn Sovereign Wealth Fund,” Financial Times, August 23, 2019, https://www.ft.com/content/033057a2-c504–11e9-a8e9-296ca66511c9.

147. “France, Germany Step up Effort to Build Rivals to US Cloud Firms,” Reuters, October 23, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-germany-cloud/france-germany-step-up-effort-to-build-rivals-to-u-s-cloud-firms-idUSKBN1X81YO.

148. David Sanger, “Biden Defines His Underlying Challenge with China: ‘Prove Democracy Works,’” New York Times, March 26, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/26/us/politics/biden-china-democracy.html.

Conclusion

1. Jon Swartz, “Former Google CEO: ‘This is the first time as a species we have had to face the same problem as a planet,’” Marketwatch, April 8, 2020, https://www.marketwatch.com/story/former-google-ceo-this-is-the-first-time-as-a-species-we-have-had-to-face-the-same-problem-as-a-planet-2020-04-08.

2. Theodore Schleifer, “Google's Former CEO Hopes the Coronavirus Makes People More ‘Grateful’ for Big Tech,” Recode, April 14, 2020, https://www.vox.com/recode/2020/4/14/21221141/coronavirus-eric-schmidt-google-big-tech-grateful.

3. Didi Rankovic, “Ex-Google CEO Eric Schmidt: Coronavirus Should Make People Grateful for Big Tech,” Reclaim the Net, April 15, 2020, https://reclaimthenet.org/ex-google-ceo-eric-schmidt-grateful-big-tech/.

4. David Harvey, “The ‘New’ Imperialism: Accumulation by Dispossession,” Socialist Register 40 (2004): 74.

5. Anwar Shaikh, Capitalism: Competition, Conflict, Crises (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 14.

6. Tom Wheeler, “Time for a U.S.—EU Digital Alliance,” Brookings, January 21, 2021, https://www.brookings.edu/research/time-for-a-us-eu-digital-alliance/.

7. Vivek Chibber, “Why We Still Talk about the Working Class,” Jacobin, March 15, 2017, https://www-jacobinmag-com.stanford.idm.oclc.org/2017/03/abcs-socialism-working-class-workers-capitalism-power-vivek-chibber/.

8. Johana Bhuiyan and Carly Olson, “Uber and Lyft Drivers Strike over Pay, Gig-Work Conditions,” Los Angeles Times, July 21, 2021, https://www.latimes.com/business/story/2021–07–21/uber-and-lyft-rideshare-drivers-strike-rally-for-pro-act-union.

9. Achin Vanaik, “Farmers Are Leading India's Biggest Social Movement in a Generation,” Jacobin, April 17, 2021, https://jacobinmag.com/2021/04/indian-farmers-strike-modi-bjp-social-movements-historical-struggles.

10. Jennifer Pedraza, “Colombia's Uprising Isn't About Duque. It's About Overturning Neoliberalism,” Jacobin, June 8, 2021, https://www.jacobinmag.com/2021/06/colombia-ivan-duque-government-neoliberalism-protest-general-strike.